The database approach has several unique characteristics not found in traditional (flat- file) systems. Which of the following statements does not apply to the database model?

a. Database systems have data independence; that is, the data and the programs are maintained separately except during processing.

b. Database systems contain a data-definition language that helps describe each schema and subschema.

c. The database administrator is the part of the software package that instructs the operating aspects of the program when data are retrieved.

d. A primary goal of database systems is to minimize data redundancy.

e. Database systems provide increased accessibility to data and flexibility in its usage.