In the judicial case United States v. City of Chicago, a minority group failed the Fire Captain Examination at a much higher rate than the majority group. Conclusion: The exam is biased and causes members of the minority group to fail at a much higher rate.

Use critical thinking to develop an alternative or correct conclusion. For example, consider a media report that BMW cars cause people to be healthier. Here is an alternative conclusion: Owners of BMW cars tend to be wealthier than others, and greater wealth is associated with better health.