3 What kind of factors are consumers taking into account when assessing the retail price of replica kit? Do you think they are sensitive to price or to the number of new kits that come out? Love it or hate it, Manchester United is big business. It is a worldwide brand name that generates a loyalty and affinity that enables the soccer club, like many others, to develop merchandise, media products and alliances with service providers on a scale not thought possible in the era before the English Premier League was established. Merchandising sales have been helped as soccer has repositioned itself from a working-class game, sometimes dominated by violent youth, to a family entertainment dominated by middle and higher earners. For many clubs, what happens on the pitch or terrace is just a small part of a powerful marketing organisation.

Manchester United can be considered a typical ‘passion brand’, characterised by a sometimes fanatical following and a strong sense of belonging that is far removed from the discerning and rational consumer. Its following spreads far wider than its Old Trafford ground and many supporters have never seen a live game.

Even passion brands are not immune from criticism, however, and there is a risk of over-commercialisation, which can undermine the special relationship between the club and the consumer.