New York State’s fourth-grade English exam led to an outcry from parents because of a question that was perceived to be an unfair measure of fourth graders’ performance. Students read a story, “Why the Rooster Crows at Dawn,” that described an arrogant rooster who claims to be king, and Brownie, “the kindest of all the cows,” who eventually acts in a mean way toward the rooster. In the beginning the rooster does whatever he wants, but by the end, the cows, led by Brownie, have convinced him that as self-proclaimed king, he must be the first to wake up in the morning and the last to go to sleep. To the cows’ delight, the arrogant rooster complies. Students were then asked to respond to several questions about the story, including one that asked: “What causes Brownie’s behavior to change?” Several parents started a Web site, browniethecow.org, to point out problems with the test, particularly with this question. Students, they argued, were confused because it seemed that it was the rooster’s behavior, not the cow’s behavior, that changed. The correct answer, according to a quote on the Web site from an unnamed state official, was that the cow started out kind and ended up mean. 

a. This test item was supposed to evaluate writing skills. According to the Web site, test items should lead to good student writing; be unambiguous; test for writing, not another skill; and allow for objective, reliable scoring. If students were marked down for talking about the rooster rather than the cow, as alleged by the Web site, would it meet these criteria? Explain. Does this seem to be a valid question? Explain. 

b. The Web site states that New York City schools use the tests to, among other things, evaluate teachers and principals. The logic behind this, ostensibly, is that good teachers and administrators cause higher test performance. List at least two possible third variables that might lead to better performance in some schools than in other schools, other than the presence of good teachers and administrators.