8. The outcomes of investments (monetary or effort wise) is very often uncertain: there is a probability of success, or, conversely, a likelihood of failure. The concept of expected benefit is intended to reflect that the true benefit of an investment depends on both magnitude of the positive effects and its probability of success. How can this be expressed mathematically? [Jos mentioned this during one of the lectures.]

9. What is the probability of a randomly selected individual being a male who smokes?

Yes No Total Male 19 41 60 Female 12 28 40 Total 31 69 100 9. What is the probability of a randomly selected individual being a male who smokes? 10. The Excel file "USA 2019 Urban Populations" lists the population sizes for urban areas in the United States in 2019. The total population of the USA in 2019 was 328,993,529. What was the probability, in 2019, that a resident of the United States lived in a city with a population of one million persons or more? MacBook Pro ()) % & 6 P 8 KD O A Y U P a T O h