A new product task team met for the first time. Tony, the team leader, was particularly stressed that day from work and home issues, and he answered questions gruffly. Tony's gruff manner, thick New York accent, and age (over sixty years old) were interpreted by some team members to mean that Tony was closed-minded to new ideas and would be difficult to work with. Over time, the team asked fewer questions or offered few new ideas. Tony became gruffer because of his frustration with the team's lack of participation. Tony felt pressure to move the project forward, so he pushed ahead with his own ideas. Team members grumbled to themselves that he was exactly what they first thought. This is an example of