A political entity hires a fact-checking agency to discredit the results of a newly published scientific paper. The paper reports a statistically significant association between a certain behavior and transmission of a certain infection. The paper in question is well-designed as observational studies go. The fact checker reports that there is no proof that the behavior causes transmission of the infection. PROPOSITION ONE: The fact checker is correct. PROPOSITION TWO: The fat checker's report should be considered suspicious because associations from observational studies do not and cannot imply causations