A study by the New York State Office of the Attorney General (NYSOAG) analyzed data on 4.4 million stops between 2004-2012. They found that 83% of those stopped by the New York Police Department were black or Hispanic even though those groups only made up 50% of population. Responding to the police arguments that the numbers reflected blacks and Hispanics disproportionate involvement in crime, a federal judge noted the following:

1. Nearly 90% of the people stopped are released without the officer finding any basis of for a summons or arrest.
2. Weapons were seized in 1.0% of the stops of blacks, 1.1% of stops of Hispanics, and 1.4% of the stops of whites.
3. Contraband other than weapons was seized in 1.8% of the tops of blacks, 1.7% of the stops of Hispanics, and 2.3% of the stops of whites.
4. Once a stop is made, blacks and Hispanics are more likely to be subject to the use of force than whites, despite the fact that whites are more likely to be found with weapons or contraband

Questions:

1. Are you surprise by those findings, why or why not?
2. According to the text, why do lawsuits challenging racial profiling face uphill battles?
3. According to the text, what are the consequences/impact of race-based policing (i.e., how does it impact police-racial minority relationships; police attention to certain groups; the distortion of the "social world", and the paradox of over-enforcement and under-protection)?

NOTE: Your responses should include some reference to the article "Black, Brown, and Targeted".