1. "Abstract Background:... This study tested the hypothesis that childhood lead exposure in select Australian populations is related to subsequent aggressive criminal behaviors. Methods: We conducted regression analyses at suburb, state and national levels using multiple analytic methods and data sources.

At the suburb-level, we examined assault rates as a function of air lead concentrations 15-24 years earlier, reflecting the ubiquitous age-related peak in criminal activity. .... State and national analyses were conducted for convergent validity, utilizing deaths by assault as a function of petrol lead emissions. Results: Suburb-level mixed model analyses showed air lead concentrations accounted for 29.8 % of the variance in assault rates 21 years later, after adjusting for socio-demographic covariates. ... Conclusions: The strong positive relationship between childhood lead exposure and subsequent rates of aggressive crime has important implications for public health globally. Measures need to be taken to ameliorate exposure to lead and other environmental contaminants with known neurodevelopmental consequences."