after reading the passage below, summarize the texts

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LESSON3 What Historical Developments Inuenced Modern Ideas of Individual Rights? LESSON PURPOSE The previous two lessons explored ideas that shaped the Founders' thinking about constitutional government and civic life. "this lesson examines several important historical developments that also inuenced their ideas. LESSON OBJECTIVES When you have nished this lesson, you should be able to - explain the differences between classical republican and Iudeo-Christian ideas about the importance of the individual, . explain how certain historical developments inu- enced modern ideas about government, constitue tionalism. and individual rights, and . evaluate, take. and defend positions on approaches to theories of morality, the importance of the rise of capitalism, and how the Enlightenment inspired the Founders. TERMS TO UNDERSTAND capitalism nation-state city-state private morality feudalism public morality iudeo-Chn'stian HOW DID THE JUDEO-CHRISTIAN HERITAGE CONTRIBUTE TO THE FOUNDERS' UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN RIGHTS? Classical republican ideas and natural rights phi- losophy influenced the political ideas of the Founders. Another important influence on their thinking was the Judeo-Christian religious tradition. The Founders were familiar with the teachings of the Bible, but they also knew that differing religious beliefs had caused serious political conflicts. Judeo-Christian morality was different from Greek and Roman ideals of civic virtue. Instead of public morality (the virtues that are important for acting in the community), it emphasized private morality, meaning the virtues of inner faith and obedience to God's law. These were expressed in biblical teachings, such as the Ten Commandments and the Sermon on the Mount. Christian teachings gave special importance to duties such as goodwill and loving others. The Christian view of the individual also differed from that of classical republicans. Christian teachings stressed the dignity and worth of each human being. Much of the Founders' commitment to liberty and individual rights sprang from their belief in such ideals. How did Christianity become a powerful political force in Europe during the Middle Ages? Christianity spread rapidly through the Roman Empire in spite of the government's attempts to suppress it. Christians began receiving relief from persecution when the Roman Emperor Constantine (c. 272-337) came to power. Within a few years Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. Even after the Roman Empire col- lapsed in the West near the end of the fifth century, the Christian faith survived to shape European society. In fact, the Roman Catholic Church-often referred to simply as the Church-became an extremely powerful political force during the Middle Ages (fifth century to early fifteenth century). Bishops, who were regional church officials, often were as powerful as the princes or barons in their territo- ries. In some places bishops held governmental power. The Church was the one unifying social institution in Europe during the Middle Ages. Its spiritual leader was the pope, whose seat was the old imperial capital, Rome. Most Europeans identified with this "universal" Church in terms of religion, but political loyalties were local. People looked to local rulers for protection, and they trusted people more How did Judeo-Christian ideas about the individual than institutions. There were no nations, in the modern differ from the classical republican view? sense, to compete for their loyalties.WHAT WERE EUROPEAN CONCEPTS OF . Society was divided into different classes THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY DURING and groups, such as royalty, nobility, clergy, THE MIDDLE AGES? tradesmen, craftsmen, peasants, and serfs. Each class or group had certain rights and Apart from the unifying element of the Church, medi- responsibilities. eval European society was highly fragmented. Europe was Society was hierarchical-that is, classes and divided into many isolated communities. Communication groups were ranked from the most powerful, and travel were dangerous, slow, and difficult. People lived royalty and nobility, at the top to the least and worked within their own communities and typically powerful, serfs, at the bottom. No equality had little contact with outsiders. The Church was the existed among groups and classes. authority on all matters. Social relationships were thought to be Government in the Middle Ages generally followed a permanent and hereditary. A person was gen- hierarchical pattern known as feudalism. Feudalism was erally not free to leave the class into which he based on the principle of land for service. Those who lived or she had been born. Property-specifically on a lord's land were known as his vassals. They served real estate-could not be freely bought and their lord and in return were entitled to his protection. sold. It could only be obtained or passed on Feudalism created a political structure in which the feu- through inheritance. Usually the eldest son dal contract defined duties and rights. People were loyal was the principal heir. Inheriting property to their lord, rather than to a country or to fellow citizens. meant inheriting its responsibilities, such as Even though Christianity accepted every believer as the service or protection. equal of all others, certain medieval ideas about society . Rights and duties were tied to group mem- and government were similar to those of classical repub- bership or to particular grants of land. There licanism. Medieval thinkers borrowed the classical idea of was no concept of natural rights belonging to harmony between each individual and the whole of soci- all individuals. ety, which they called Respublica Christiana-"Christian Republic." They also borrowed ideas from the Greek philosopher Plato (429-347 BC), who compared society to ahuman body. Plato suggested that some parts of society, like some parts of the human body, are more important WHAT DO YOU THINK? than others; but all are necessary for the good of the whole. 1. How did Judeo-Christian morality differ from Greek and Roman ideals of civic virtue 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of viewing rights and responsibilities as being pos- sessed by individuals rather than groups? 3. If the ideas about rights that prevailed during the Middle Ages were dominant today, how would they affect your life? WHAT WERE THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION, AND HOW DID THEY CONTRIBUTE TO IDEAS ABOUT RIGHTS? The term renaissance means "rebirth." The Renaissance is the name given to the period marked by a revival of intellectual life that began in Italy around the fourteenth century and spread throughout Europe. During this period cities developed, commerce began to flourish, and educa- tion started to become more widespread. The invention Why might people in the Middle Ages have looked to of the printing press using movable type in the fifteenth local rulers for protection rather than the church? century increased communication and the spread ofknowledge. Learned people rediscovered ancient Greek and Roman history, literature, and art, as well as medie- val Arabic philosophy and mathematics. These discoveries inspired a view of the world and humanity very different from that of medieval Christianity. During the Renaissance some people began to place greater importance on the individual than on the class or group into which they had been born. In the volatile city- states of Renaissance Italy and later in northern Europe, people found that they could move from one social posi- tion to another. Growing possibilities for individual opportunity helped lead to an increased interest among philosophers and jurists in the rights of individuals. This interest contributed to a reexamination of the individual's relationship to religious institutions and governments. The Protestant Reformation was another powerful stimulus to modern individualism. The Reformation was a religious reform movement that began in the early six- teenth century in western Europe. Religious reformers, studying the Bible and other ancient religious texts, began to challenge the doctrines, traditions, and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. The reform-minded clerics believed that the medieval church had become corrupt and had lost sight of the original truths of Christianity. Some of these critics attempted to reform the church from within. Other reformers, such as Martin Luther (1483-1546) in Germany and later John Calvin (1509- 1564) in France, obtained official government support, or How might the ability to read the Bible in one's own establishment, for their breakaway churches. These reform- language have contributed to greater freedom of con- ers and their followers were called Protestants. The word science and individualism? protestant is derived from the Latin protestation meaning "declaration," which Martin Luther made when he and his How might the freedom to believe as one wishes lead to dissent, individualism, and a desire to reform existing institutions?How did the Peaoe'orWestphaaa ofls contribute to the developmentofnation-states? ' supporters dissented from an edict against the Reformation in the 15205. The secular rulers who supported these new churches saw the Reformation as an opportunity to free themselves from the Catholic Church's political inuence. The Reformation was aided by the invention of a print- ing press using movable type, which allowed for more rapid and economical printing. For centuries the Bible had been available only in Latin, which few people other than priests could read. During the Reformation, Bibles were printed in English, German, French, Italian, and Spanish. Individuals were encouraged to read the Bible in their native language and to determine for themselves what it meant. Being able to read the Bible for oneself encouraged greater freedom of conscience, or the freedom of individ- uals to decide about their own religious beliefs. Protestant religious doctrine emphasized a direct relationship between each believer and God. Luther argued for the \"priesthood of all believers,\" which had the effect of decentralizing religious authority and empowering and placing respon- sibility onmindividual believers. All individuals were seen as equal in the eyes of God. Individuals were free to inter pret the word of God. but God also was viewed as holding individuals accountable for their actions. The spirit of free inquiry and individual conscience that the Reformation inspired contributed to the development of modern individualism. Ultimately it also posed a threat to most established institutions and authority. Some reli- gious reformers, in fact, began to question the authorit)l of the newly established Protestant churches. In England. for example, certain reformers attacked the Church of England during the Elizabethan periodprincipally the reign of Queen Elizabeth I from 1558 to 1603for not being suf- ciently Protestant. They were called Puritans, because they wanted to \"purify\" the church. Many American col- onies were settled by people, including Puritans, seeking to worship in their own way, free from the requirements of established Protestant churches. HOW DID THE NATION-STATE ARISE? By the end of the Middle Ages rulers were beginning to expand their areas of control and to form new and larger states. The Renaissance and the Reformation helped to speed up this process. But the changes were not easy. During the Reformation Europe was torn apart by religious wars. in some places one-third to one-half the population was killed in this warfare. (W n In 1648 the Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years' WHAT DO YOU THINK? War, which had been fought since 1618 mainly on ground that today is in Germany. The conflict involved most of the 1. You have learned that in some parts of Europe, continent's powers at one time or another and was one of political and economic power began to shift the bloodiest conflicts that Europe had known. The Peace from wealthy, upper-class landowners to people of Westphalia often is regarded as marking the beginning who became wealthy from commerce; that is, of the modern system of nation-states. This settlement from buying and selling goods and services. recognized national sovereignty, the right of each nation- state to an independent existence. It also provided that a. What rights of individuals were necessary each nation-state would respect the independence or sov- for this change to take place? ereignty of the others. And it confirmed that nation-states could choose their own institutions, including religion. b. What impact might the right to property have on the establishment or exercise of The rise of the nation-state was important to the devel- other rights? opment of modern ideas about government and rights. People began to think of themselves as citizens of a par- 2. With the development of capitalism people ticular nation or country, with public rights and duties. In began to view the individual differently than addition to the nation-states there were many independent they had in the classical republics or during the city-states that practiced self-government by a rising class Middle Ages. What was this different view and of merchants, tradesmen, and nobles. This development why did it come about? was in contrast to the old feudal system, in which people's rights and duties were defined in personal terms. Political 3. How were the rise of the nation-state and capi- thought began to focus on the question of what kind of talism related to individualism? What effect did government would be best for these states. these developments have on the common good? 4. How do the new ideas that developed out of the WHAT WAS THE NEW ECONOMIC SYSTEM Renaissance and the Reformation still affect our OF CAPITALISM? thinking today? Cite some examples of specific effects. Among the forces that helped to break up medieval society and to pave the way for the Renaissance was the Increase in commercial trade and its expansion over greater distances. Eventually this growth produced a new eco- CRITICAL THINKING EXERCISE nomic system called capitalism. Capitalism is an economic Understanding the Effects of the Renaissance system in which the means of producing and distribut- and the Reformation on Ideas about Rights ing goods are privately owned and operated for profit in competitive markets. Unlike in feudal relationships, in cap- In previous lessons you studied the ideas of the italism goods and services are freely exchanged natural rights philosophers concerning individual rights and the purpose of government. You also Capitalism allowed more people to choose their own learned about classical republican ideas of civic occupations, to start their own businesses, and to buy and virtue and the common good. Now work in small sell property. People also were able to pay more attention to groups of four or five students to consider what you their private interests than to the common good. They were have learned in this lesson about the Judeo-Christian encouraged to work to gain property and to improve their tradition, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the economic position. As a result in parts of Europe political Reformation, and the rise of the nation-state and and economic power began to shift to a newly develop- capitalism. ing class of successful citizens who gained wealth through commerce and away from the upper classes that derived 1. Were any ideas prevalent during one of these their wealth from the land periods with which people who believe in natu- ral rights might not agree? What are these ideas? Natural rights philosophy and Protestant religion both Why might some people disagree with them? contributed to the rise of capitalism. Natural rights philos- ophers believed that government existed to secure people's 2. Do you think that ideas about the importance of property. Protestant religious groups, especially those in the the individual, individual rights, and the com- tradition of John Calvin, saw wealth as a sign of God's grace. mon good that emerged during these historical periods have influenced your thinking about the nature and purpose of government? If so, explain how.HOWr DID THE ENLIGHTENMENT INSPIRE THE AMERlOAN FOUNDEBS? The worldly interests inspired by the Renaissance stim- ulated natural sciencethat is, the study of the natural world and the laws that govern it. Commercial expansion and voyages of discovery beyond Europe also encouraged this study. These voyages brought back new kn0wledge about the natural world and about other cultures. Science and technology advanced rapidly. People began to believe that humans could solve many problems, such as how to treat diseases, that once had been accepted simplyr as misfortunes in life. By the eighteenth century this oor- ishing scientic and intellectual movement would become known as the Age of Enlightenment. An important early gure in this movement was the English philosopher Francis Bacon (15611626). Bacon believed in the power of human reason and observation, not only to understand nature but also to control it for humanity's purposes. The end of scientic study. he said, is the "enlarging of the bounds of human empire, to the effect ing of all things possible.\" His goal was to subdue nature for the benet of humanity. Discoveries by scientists, such as astronomers Nicolaus Copernicus {14731543) from Poland, Galileo Galilei (15641642) from Italy, and lsaac Newton (1643-1727) from England, seemed to conrm Bacon's faith in people's ability to understand nature. " 3m . _ i reected in the work of Francis Bacon and others inuence This belief in science and reason also inuenced the study of human nature and government. Living in the midst of intense scientic research and discovery in sev- enteenthcentury England. philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. introduced previously, embraced scientic reasoning. Locke himself was an inventive physician. And Hobbes visited French philosopher Ren Descartes (1596 l650)often called the Father of Modern Mathematics and the Father of Modern Philosophyin Paris and Galileo in Florence. Their ideas about the state of nature and the basis for government were founded on the notion that human behavior could be understood, predicted, and controlled. In the next century came Montesquieu ( 1689- 1 755 ), who was discussed in Lesson 1. This important Enlightenment political philosopher argued that the form of a society's government corresponds to the social, economic, and geographic conditions of that society. Therefore the best government for any nation is one tailored to the unique circumstances of that nation. The American Founders belonged to the Age of Enlightenment. They believed that reason and observation, complemented by the study of history and writers such as Locke and Montesquieu, would enable them to understand the workings of governmental and social institutions. They thought that this understanding could generate what the Founders called the \"new science of politics.\" This new sci: ence would help the Founders construct a government for the new United States. (4-2?