Another important element of behavior in organizations is stress—an individual’s response to a strong stimulus called a stressor.30 Stress generally follows a cycle referred to as the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS),31 shown in Figure 9.4. According to this view, when an individual first encounters a stressor, the GAS is initiated, and the stage 1, alarm, is activated. He may feel panic, wonder how to cope, and feel helpless. For example, suppose a manager is told to prepare a detailed evaluation of a plan by his firm to buy one of its competitors. His first reaction may be, “How will I ever get this done by tomorrow?”

Causes of Work Stress There are several causes of work stress in organizations. Four general sets of organizational stressors are task demands, physical demands, role demands, and interpersonal demands. Causes and Consequences of Stress Stress is obviously not a simple phenomenon. As listed in Figure 9.5, several different things can cause stress. Note that this list includes only work-related conditions. We should keep in mind that stress can also be the result of personal circumstances.33 Causes of Stress Work-related stressors fall into one of four categories—task, physical, role, and interpersonal demands. Task demands are associated with the task itself. Some occupations are inherently more stressful than others. Having to make fast decisions, decisions with less than complete information, or decisions that have relatively serious consequences are some of the things that can make some jobs stressful. The jobs of the surgeon, airline pilot, and stockbroker are relatively more stressful than the jobs of general practitioner, baggage handler, and office receptionist. Although a general practitioner makes important decisions, he is also likely to have time to make a considered diagnosis and fully explore a number of different treatments. But, during surgery, the surgeon must make decisions quickly while realizing that the wrong one may endanger her patient’s life. Physical demands are stressors associated with the job setting. Working outdoors in extremely hot or cold temperatures, or even in an improperly heated or cooled office, can lead to stress. Likewise, jobs that have rotating work shifts make it difficult for people to have stable sleep patterns. A poorly designed office, which makes it difficult for people to have privacy or promotes too little social interaction, can result in stress, as can poor lighting and inadequate work surfaces. Even more severe are actual threats to health. Examples include jobs such as coal mining, poultry processing, and toxic waste handling. Similarly, some jobs carry risks associated with higher incident rates of violence, for example, law enforcement officers, or those at risk of armed robberies, such as taxi drivers, and convenience store clerks. Role demands can also cause stress. (Roles are discussed more fully in Chapter 13.) A role is a set of expected behaviors associated with a position in a group or organiza- tion. Stress can result from either role conflict or role ambiguity that people can experi- ence in groups. For example, an employee who is feeling pressure from her boss to work longer hours or to travel more, while also being asked by her family for more time at home, will almost certainly experience stress as a result of role conflict.34 Similarly, a new employee experiencing role ambiguity because of poor orientation and training practices by the organization will also suffer from stress. Excessive meetings and mobilecommunication devices that keep people connected to their jobs are also potential sources of stress.35 Although job cuts and layoffs during the 2008–2009 recession focused on the stress experienced by those losing their jobs (and appropriately so), it’s also the case that many of the managers imposing the layoffs experienced stress.36 Interpersonal demands are stressors associated with relationships that confront people in organizations. For example, group pressures regarding restriction of output and norm conformity can lead to stress. Leadership styles may also cause stress. An employee who feels a strong need to participate in decision making may feel stress if his boss refuses to allow participation. And individuals with conflicting personalities may experience stress if required to work too closely together. For example, a person with an internal locus of control might be frustrated when working with someone who prefers to wait and just let things happen. Consequences of Stress As noted earlier, the results of stress may be positive or neg- ative. The negative consequences may be behavioral, psychological, or medical. Behavior- ally, for example, stress may lead to detrimental or harmful actions, such as smoking, alcohol or drug abuse, and overeating. Other stress-induced behaviors are accident proneness, violence toward self or others, and appetite disorders. Substance abuse is also a potential consequence.37 The psychological consequences of stress can interfere with an individual’s mental health and well-being. Problems include sleep disturbances, depression, family problems, and sexual dysfunction. Managers are especially prone to sleep disturbances when they experience stress at work.38 Medical consequences of stress affect an individual’s physio- logical well-being. Heart disease and stroke have been linked to stress, as have headaches, backaches, and skin conditions such as acne and hives.39 Individual stress also has direct consequences for businesses. For an operating employee, stress may translate into poor-quality work and lower productivity. For a man- ager, it may mean faulty decision making and disruptions in working relationships.40 Withdrawal behaviors can also result from stress. People who are having difficulties with stress in their jobs are more likely to call in sick or to leave their positions. More subtle forms of withdrawal may also occur. A manager may start missing deadlines, for example, or taking longer lunch breaks. Employees may also withdraw by developing feelings of indifference. The irritation displayed by people under great stress can make them difficult to get along with. Job satisfaction, morale, and commitment can all suffer as a result of excessive levels of stress. So, too, can motivation to perform. Another consequence of stress is burnout—a feeling of exhaustion that may develop when someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time. Burnout results in constant fatigue, frustration, and helplessness. Increased rigidity follows, as do a loss of self-confidence and psychological withdrawal. The individual dreads going to work, often puts in longer hours but gets less accomplished than before, and exhibits mental and physical exhaustion. Because of the damaging effects of burnout, some firms are taking steps to help avoid it. For example, British Airways provides all of its employees with training designed to help them recognize the symptoms of burnout and develop strategies for avoiding it. The “Tough Times, Tough Choices” feature discusses other damaging consequences of stress. Managing Stress Given the potential consequences of stress, it follows that both people and organizations should be concerned about how to limit its more damaging effects. Numerous ideas and approaches have been developed to help manage stress. Some are strategies for indivi- duals; others are strategies for organizations.41One way people manage stress is through exercise. People who exercise regularly feel less tension and stress, are more self-confident, and feel more optimistic. Their better physical condition also makes them less susceptible to many common illnesses. People who do not exercise regularly, on the other hand, tend to feel more stress and are more likely to be depressed. They are also more likely to have heart attacks. And, because of their physical condition, they are more likely to contract illnesses. Another method people use to manage stress is relaxation. Relaxation allows indivi- duals to adapt to, and therefore better deal with, their stress. Relaxation comes in many forms, such as taking regular vacations. A recent study found that people’s attitudes toward a variety of workplace characteristics improved significantly following a vacation. People can also learn to relax while on the job. For example, some experts recommend that people take regular rest breaks during their normal workday. People can also use time management to control stress. The idea behind time man- agement is that many daily pressures can be reduced or eliminated if individuals do a better job of managing time. One approach to time management is to make a list every morning of the things to be done that day. The items on the list are then grouped into three categories: critical activities that must be performed, important activities that should be performed, and optional or trivial things that can be delegated or postponed. The individual performs the items on the list in their order of importance. Finally, people can manage stress through support groups. A support group can be as simple as a group of family members or friends with whom to enjoy leisure time. Going out after work with a couple of coworkers to a basketball game or a movie, for example, can help relieve stress built up during the day. Family and friends can help people cope with stress on an ongoing basis and during times of crisis. For example, an employee who has just learned that she did not get the promotion she has been working towardfor months may find it helpful to have a good friend to lean on, talk to, or yell at. People may also make use of more elaborate and formal support groups. Community centers or churches, for example, may sponsor support groups for people who have recently gone through a divorce, the death of a loved one, or some other tragedy. Organizations are also beginning to realize that they should be involved in helping employees cope with stress. One argument for this is that because the business is at least partially responsible for stress, it should also help relieve it. Another is that stress- related insurance claims by employees can cost the organization considerable sums of money. Still another is that workers experiencing lower levels of detrimental stress will be able to function more effectively. AT&T has initiated a series of seminars and work- shops to help its employees cope with the stress they face in their jobs. The firm was prompted to develop these seminars for all three of the reasons noted earlier. A wellness stress program is a special part of an organization specifically created to help deal with stress. Organizations have adopted stress management programs, health promotion programs, and other kinds of programs for this purpose. The AT&T seminar program noted earlier is similar to this idea, but true wellness programs are ongoing activities that have a number of different components. They commonly include exercise-related activities as well as classroom instruction programs dealing with smoking cessation, weight reduction, and general stress management. Some companies are developing their own programs or using existing programs of this type. Johns Manville, for example, has a gym at its corporate headquarters. Other firms negotiate discounted health club membership rates with local establishments. For the instructional part of the program, the organization can again either sponsor its own training or perhaps jointly sponsor seminars with a local YMCA, civic organization, or church. Organization-based fitness programs facilitate employee exercise, a very positive consideration, but such programs are also quite costly. Still, more and more companies are developing fitness programs for employees. Similarly, some companies are offering their employees periodic sabbaticals—extended breaks from work that presumably allow people to get revitalized and reenergized. Intel and McDonald’s are among the firms offering the benefit.

Causes and Management of Stress

Carefully read the sections talking about stress and answer the following questions:

• In what ways has/is your current living and working situation created stress for you? Do you consider yourself a Type A or Type B personality type? Does personality type matter? What are some of the additional causes of your stress? What are some of the consequences?
• How have you been managing your stress?
• Can you think of ways to possibly provide helpful advice for some of your fellow students?