Assume that you are using the dividend growth model to value stocks. If investors' required rate of return increase across the board on all equity securities, then you should also expect the:

A. market values of all stocks to increase, all else constant.

B. market values of all stocks to remain constant as the dividend growth will offset the increase in the market rate.

C. stocks that do not pay dividends to decrease in price while the dividend-paying stocks maintain a constant price.

D. market values of all stocks to decrease, all else constant

E. dividend growth rates to increase to offset this change