Chapter 15 (Borkowski & Meese) CHAPTER 15 Conflict Management and Negotiation Skills After completing this chapter, the student should understand: The definition of conflict The four basic types of conflict The five levels of conflict The five conflict-handling modes The three major negotiation models

Chapter 15: This chapters considers conflict management and negotiation skills. While unavoidable, conflict is part of our everyday lives - professional and personal. The chapter defines the concept of "conflict" and provides a review of types and levels of conflict. "Conflict is a natural part of human relationships. As such, it is inevitable and unavoidable. It is a part of our everyday professional and personal lives; therefore, it is inherent in any type of work setting (Thomas, 1976). Although there are numerous definitions of conflict, Thomas (1992a, b) suggests that most definitions have three common components: (1) perceived incompatibility of interests, (2) some interdependence of the parties, and (3) some form of interaction. For example, Rahim (1985) defined conflict as an "interactive state" manifested in disagreement or differences, or incompatibility, within or between individuals and groups. For our discussions, we will define conflict as occurring when an individual or group feels negatively affected by another individual or group. No organization is exempt from conflict, and the health care setting is a particularly conflictual environment because of factors such as high stress, strong emotions, scarce resources, competition, downsizing, mergers, excessive regulations, diversity and cultural issues, and multiple stakeholders' demands. These factors increase conflict in organizations (Gardner, 1992; Johnson, 1994). Research has shown that both health care and non-health care managers spend Page 284284 an average of 30% of their time dealing with conflict, and this is often cited as one of the least enjoyable aspects of their leadership roles (McElhaney, 1996; Robbins, 1990; Shelton & Darling, 2004; Thomas & Schmidt, 1976).

No organization is exempt from conflict, and the health care setting is a particularly conflictual environment because of factors such as high stress, strong emotions, scarce resources, competition, downsizing, mergers, excessive regulations, diversity and cultural issues, and multiple stakeholders' demands. These factors increase conflict in organizations (Gardner, 1992; Johnson, 1994). Research has shown that both health care and non-health care managers spend Page 284284 an average of 30% of their time dealing with conflict, and this is often cited as one of the least enjoyable aspects of their leadership roles (McElhaney, 1996; Robbins, 1990; Shelton & Darling, 2004; Thomas & Schmidt, 1976). Lewicki, Weiss, and Lewin (1992) identify six major areas in conflict research: the micro-level (psychological) approach, the macro-level (sociological) approach, the economic-analysis approach, the labor-relations approach, the bargaining and negotiation approach, and the third-party dispute approach. The micro-level approach includes research on factors that affect intrapersonal and interpersonal conflict (i.e., within and among individuals), whereas the macro-level approach focuses on factors that affect conflict among and within groups, departments, and organizations (i.e., intragroup, intergroup, and interorganizational). Economic analysis refers to economic rationality and how it applies to individual decision making. The research areas of labor relations, bargaining and negotiation, and third-party resolution relate to studies that deal with the effects of workplace and conflict resolutions and/or conflict management. Using this framework, we first discuss the various types and levels of conflict. Second, we examine the various methods to deal with conflict effectively, referred to as conflict resolution or conflict management. This discussion includes individual decision making and the negotiation skills that are necessary for effective conflict management". "Types of Conflict There are four basic types of conflict: goal, cognitive, affective, and procedural (Kolb & Bartunek, 1992). Goal conflict occurs when two or more desired or expected outcomes are incompatible. It may involve inconsistencies between individual or group values and norms (e.g., standards of behavior). Cognitive conflict occurs when the ideas and thoughts within an individual or between individuals are incompatible. Affective conflict emerges when the feelings and emotions within an individual or between individuals are incompatible. Procedural conflict occurs when people differ over the process to use for resolving a particular matter". There are five levels of conflict: intrapersonal conflict (within a person), interpersonal conflict (between or among individuals), intragroup conflict (within a group), intergroup conflict (between or among groups), and interorganizational conflict (between or among organizations). Page 286286 Intrapersonal Conflict Intrapersonal conflict occurs within the individual and may involve some form of goal or cognitive or affective conflict. Intrapersonal goal conflict happens when several alternative courses of action are available and when the outcome, whether positive or negative, is important to the individual (Locke, Smith, Erez, Chah, & Schaffer, 1994). Brehm and Cohen (1962) identified three types of intrapersonal conflict that may develop, involving alternative courses of action" "Approach/Approach: The approach/approach type occurs when an individual must choose between two or more alternatives, each of which is expected to have a positive outcome. For example, Judy Lewis, a recent graduate of a local university's master of health services administration (MHSA) program, has been offered job positions in two different health care organizations. The first is a managed care coordinator position with a national, publicly held laboratory company. The second is a network analyst position with a fast-growing third-party administrator. The salary levels of the two positions are comparable. Avoidance/Avoidance: The avoidance/avoidance type occurs when an individual must choose between two or more alternatives, each of which is expected to result in a negative outcome. For example, after Judy Lewis accepted the position as the managed care coordinator with the laboratory company, management announced that because of a recent merger, the company is in the process of rightsizing. Two options were presented to Judy: retain her position by relocating to the organization's headquarters, which is 1000 miles away from her hometown, or be laid off. Approach/Avoidance: The approach/avoidance type occurs when an individual must choose an alternative that is expected to have both positive and negative outcomes. Judy Lewis chooses the relocation option. Although she realizes that she will gain valuable experience working in the organization's corporate headquarters" "Approach/Approach: The approach/approach type occurs when an individual must choose between two or more alternatives, each of which is expected to have a positive outcome. For example, Judy Lewis, a recent graduate of a local university's master of health services administration (MHSA) program, has been offered job positions in two different health care organizations. The first is a managed care coordinator position with a national, publicly held laboratory company. The second is a network analyst position with a fast-growing third-party administrator. The salary levels of the two positions are comparable. Avoidance/Avoidance: The avoidance/avoidance type occurs when an individual must choose between two or more alternatives, each of which is expected to result in a negative outcome. For example, after Judy Lewis accepted the position as the managed care coordinator with the laboratory company, management announced that because of a recent merger, the company is in the process of rightsizing. Two options were presented to Judy: retain her position by relocating to the organization's headquarters, which is 1000 miles away from her hometown, or be laid off. Approach/Avoidance: The approach/avoidance type occurs when an individual must choose an alternative that is expected to have both positive and negative outcomes. Judy Lewis chooses the relocation option. Although she realizes that she will gain valuable experience working in the organization's corporate headquarters" "Interpersonal Conflict Interpersonal conflict is a natural outcome of human interaction. Interpersonal conflict involves two or more individuals who believe that their attitudes, behaviors, or preferred goals are in opposition. Kottler (1996) relates that there are three major sources of interpersonal conflict: (1) personal characteristics and issues, (2) interactional difficulties, and (3) differences around perspectives and perceptions of the issues. Porter-O'Grady and Epstein (2003, p. 36) summarize these components as follows: Personal Characteristics and Issues: As a result of the diversity of today's workplace, an extensive range of differences exists between persons and cultures. These differences are embedded with a kind of emotional content related to variations in beliefs, behaviors, roles, and relationships. Individuals function in the context of these diverse characteristics, further validating differences others see in us. Interactional Difficulties: As we mature and socialize, we learn effective communication and relational skills. A lack of communication skills, combined with our personal and cultural differences, creates powerful deficits in our ability to relate to one another. Because of this broad-based inadequacy, relational conflicts regularly emerge. Perspective and Perceptive Differences: When combined with personal differences and communication inadequacies, dissimilarity in the way people view issues and interactions is a common source of interpersonal conflict. This source of interpersonal conflict may include erroneous perceptions based on incomplete information, disparate interpretations of meaning, or personal bias. Many interpersonal conflicts involve goal conflict or role ambiguity. Role ambiguity involves a lack of clarity or understanding in terms of expectations about an individual's work performance. Often, the misunderstanding is the result of perceptual differences regarding an issue or process. Unclear performance expectations can easily intensify interpersonal conflicts and undermine sustainability of healthy relationships. Role ambiguity may cause stress reactions, such as aggression, hostility, and withdrawal behavior (Jackson & Schuler, 1985). Intragroup Conflict Intragroup conflict involves clashes among some or all of a group's members, which often affect the group's processes and effectiveness. Jehn and Mannix (2001) suggest that there are three types of intragroup conflict: (1) relationship, (2) task, and (3) process. Relationship conflict is an awareness of interpersonal incompatibilities. It includes affective components such as feeling tension and friction. Relationship conflict involves personal issues such as dislike among group members and feelings such as annoyance, frustration, and irritation. Task conflict is an awareness of differences in viewpoints and opinions pertaining to a group task. Like cognitive conflict, it pertains to conflict about ideas and differences of opinion about the task. Task conflicts may coincide with animated discussions and personal excitement but, by definition, are devoid of the intense interpersonal negative emotions that are commonly associated with relationship conflict. Page 288288 Process conflict is an awareness of controversies about aspects of how task accomplishment will proceed. More specifically, process conflict pertains to issues of duty and resource delegation, such as who should do what and how much responsibility should be assigned to different people. For example, when group members disagree about whose responsibility it is to complete a specific duty, they are experiencing process conflict." Intergroup Conflict Intergroup conflict involves opposition and clashes between groups. Under extreme conditions of competition and conflict, the groups develop attitudes toward one another that are characterized by a failure to communicate, distrust, and a self-interest focus (see Case Study 15-2). Nulty (1993) relates that there are four categories of intergroup conflict: (1) vertical conflict, (2) horizontal conflict, (3) line-staff conflict, and (4) diversity-based conflict.".. "Interorganizational Conflict Interorganizational conflict occurs between organizations as a result of interdependence on membership and divisional or system-wide success. For example, as Longest and Brooks (1998) point out, health care organizations participate in a variety of forms of organizational integration. The most extensively integrated organizations are integrated delivery systems (IDSs). As health care reform leads to increasing integration levels, senior managers become ever more involved in interorganizational conflict. Integration that involves extensive linking of providers at different points in the patient care continuumespecially when IDSs are linked with insurers or health plans and perhaps with suppliers in very highly integrated situationsbrings into close interactive proximity what are often quite disparate organizations. Conflicts Page 290290 are unavoidable, and the knowledge and skills to manage them effectively are imperative. Interpersonal and collaborative competence is, of course, required of senior managers in all settings, but in an IDS, such competence becomes more complex overall, especially given the new dimension of managing interorganizational conflict (Longest & Brooks, 1998)." "Conflict Management As Winder (2003, p. 20) points out: Disagreements between people are an inherent and normal part of life. These disagreements can stem from differences in perceptions, lifestyles, values, facts, motivations or procedures. Differing goals, expectations or methods can turn disagreements into conflict, which can be damaging to both parties. Conflict may also be positive and beneficial in that it can force clarification of policy or procedures, relieve tensions, open communications and resolve problems. In its negative form, conflict can direct energy from real tasks, decrease productivity, reduce morale, prevent cooperation, produce irresponsible behavior, break down communication, and increase tension and stress, all resulting in loss of valuable human resources. Understanding how conflict arises in the workplace is helpful for anticipating situations that may become conflictual. However, individuals also need to understand how they themselves cope with or handle these conflictual situations. Thomas and Kilmann (1974), building on Blake and Mouton's (1964) work in the area of leadership, identified five conflict-handling modes. Thomas and Kilmann describe the five conflict-handling modes in two dimensions: (1) assertiveness (i.e., attempt to satisfy one's own concern) and (2) cooperativeness (i.e., attempt to satisfy others' concerns). The five conflict-handling modes are (1) competition, (2) avoidance, (3) compromise, (4) accommodation, and (5) collaboration" "Conflict Negotiation Models Rubin and Brown (1975) define negotiation as the process by which two or more parties decide what each will give and take in an exchange. Since the 1960s, there has been extensive research in the field of conflict resolution or conflict management. From this research, three major negotiation models have been developed: (1) distributive, (2) integrative, and (3) interactive. Each of these models is associated with different goals and indicators of success, and each may be appropriately applied in different contexts (Winder, 2003). Distributive Model The distributive model originated in the field of labor negotiations (Lewicki et al., 1992; Stevens, 1963; Walton & McKersie, 1965) and can be described as a set of behaviors for dividing scarce resources. Distributive negotiation is often referred to as hard bargaining or a win/lose, zero-sum approach. The negotiators are viewed as adversaries that reach agreement through a series of concessions with the goal of obtaining the greater "piece of the pie." Tactics that are used in the distributive negotiation model are withholding information, guarded communications, power positioning, limited expressions of trust, use of threats, and distorted statements and demands". (Walton & McKersie, 1965). Brett and Shapiro (1998) referred to distributive negotiations as a tug-of-war with each party trying to tug the other to its own side. The winner wins when the opponent's strength gives out and the opponent is pulled across the midline. The result is an agreement that favors one side more than the other. Winder (2003) outlines the four win/lose strategies practiced by negotiators in using the distributive approach. The first negotiating strategy is the "I want it all" tactic. This tactic involves making extreme offers and then granting concessions grudgingly, if at all. The party using this tactic hopes to wear down the resolve of the other party by pressuring the other to make significant concessions and forcing the other into a position of non-reciprocation. The second negotiating strategy is "time warp." The time-warp tactic communicates an arbitrary deadline for acceptance of the offer. For example, the party using this tactic will relate to the other party that an offer is good only until a certain date and time. If not accepted by the arbitrarily set deadline, the offer will be withdrawn. The third negotiating strategy is the "good cop, bad cop" scenario. In this scenario, one party attempts to sway the other by alternating sympathetic behavior and threatening behavior. The fourth negotiating strategy is the ultimatum tactic, which is designed to try to force one party to submit to the will of the other. In this negotiation approach, "take it or leave it" offers are presented, and one party overtly tries to force acceptance of demands; one party is unwilling to make any concessions, and the other party is expected to make all of the concessions (Fisher, Ury, & Patton, 1991)." Integrative Model The integrative negotiation model, like the distributive model, evolved primarily in the field of labor negotiations (Follett, 1940, 1942; Lewicki et al., 1992; Walton & McKersie, 1965). It is currently one of the most frequently used models of conflict resolution because of its collaborative versus confrontational approach. Integrative negotiation is a cooperative, interest-based, agreement-oriented approach to dealing with conflict that is viewed as a win/win or mutual-gain dispute. Integrative negotiation is a process by which parties attempt to explore options to achieve mutual gains rather than unilateral gains. Parties recognize and define a problem, search for possible solutions to it, evaluate the solutions, and select one that maximizes joint gains (Lewicki et al., 1992). Filley (1975), building on the work of Walton and McKersie (1965), developed an integrative decision-making model. Filley's six-step approach is as follows: Create an environment that promotes equality, cooperation, communication, and information sharing. Review and adjust perceptions. Review and adjust attitudes (i.e., create processes that maximize information sharing and clear the air of past hostilities and negative attitudes). Define the problem. Search for alternatives. Achieve consensus. The concept of integrative negotiation is based on a value system that stresses interpersonal trust, cooperation, a willingness to share information combined with open communication, and a"

"Interactive Model When negotiations become locked into a win/lose situation, a third party may be invited to assist in resolving the issues (Schwarz, 1994). Interactive problem solving is a form of third-party consultation or informal mediation. Third-party facilitators can be mediators, arbitrators, or consultants. Depending on the situation, a third-party facilitator may have high or low control of either the conflict-resolution process and/or the outcomes. For example, the third party in intraorganizational conflicts is most often the person in the hierarchy to whom the contesting parties report (Lewicki et al., 1992). In this situation, the mediator/supervisor would have high control of both the conflict-resolution process and the outcomes. Mediators usually have high control of the conflict-resolution process and low control of the outcomes (as demonstrated by the VPMA in Case Study 15-4), whereas arbitrators have low control of the conflict-resolution process and high control of the outcomes. In general, interactive negotiation Page 296296 is designed to facilitate a deeper analysis of the problems and issues that are forcing the conflict. According to Winder (2003), interactive negotiation usually begins with an analysis of the needs of each of the parties and a discussion of the constraints faced by each side that make it difficult to reach a mutually beneficial solution to the conflict. After the analytical dialogue, the parties engage in joint solving rather than a fight to be won. Interactive negotiation is less focused on directly helping parties reach binding agreements (excluding arbitration) and more devoted to improving the process of communication, increasing perspectives and understanding, enabling the parties to reframe their substantive goals and priorities, and engaging in more creative problem solving. Other goals include improving the openness and accuracy of communication, improving intergroup expectancies and attitudes, reducing misperceptions and destructive patterns of interaction, inducing mutual positive motivations for creative problem solving, and ultimately building a sustainable working relationship between the parties (Winder, 2003)".

Provide a transcript for an audio podcast regarding this topic,

A topic that I found interesting and that I wanted to investigate further is the topic in CHAPTER 15 Conflict Management and Negotiation Skills The goals of the podcast are to: 1. Inform (provide an introduction/background to the topic and why it deserves attention)

2. Diagnosis (provide information on the challenges and/or opportunities connected to the topic)

3. Recommend (provide recommendations and conclusions)

In a well-constructed response and cite the source..... Borkowski, N., & Meese, K. A. (2022). Organizational behavior, theory, and design in health care (Third ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.

----In a well-constructed response write the transacript for a 4 minutes podcast addressing the topic.

A topic that I found interesting and that I wanted to investigate further is the topic in CHAPTER 15 Conflict Management and Negotiation Skills The goals of the podcast are to: 1. Inform (provide an introduction/background to the topic and why it deserves attention)

2. Diagnosis (provide information on the challenges and/or opportunities connected to the topic)

3. Recommend (provide recommendations and conclusions)