CHAPTER 3 PROBLEM MANAGEMENT 77 FIGURE 3.2 The CAPRA Problem-Management System CLIENTS Who are the clients (direct and indirect)? ACQUIRING AND ANALYZING INFORMATION IF What is the apparent problem? ED What are the underlying issues in the dispute? What are the clients' expectations, needs, and demands? What sources of information are available? PARTNERSHIPS Who are the potential partners that may help define the problem or resolve the issue? RESPONSE Which type of response does this situation require: service, protection, enforcement, or cepts of prevention? el. (See ASSESSMENT What are the possible of the consequences of the chosen response? Are the identified consequences acceptable in this situation? Was the chosen What response correct for this situation? tions, What can be learned from the occurrence? prob- otec- Inse? osen te?strategy. Police use other problem-solving models that are based on the concepts of the SARA model. CAPRA The Royal Canadian Mounted Police CAPRA model is one such model. (See oblem-solving system with five components: Figure 3.2.) The CAPRA components are: clients, acquiring and (Note: The following descriptors identify only the basic components of the alyzing information, CAPRA model.) rtnerships, response, and assessment Clients. Who are the clients (direct and indirect)? Acquiring and analyzing information. What is the apparent problem? What are the underlying issues in the dispute? What are the clients' expectations, needs, and demands? What sources of information are available? Partnerships. Who are the potential partners that might help define the prob- lem or resolve the issue? Response. Which type of response does this situation require: service, protect tion, enforcement, or prevention? Assessment. What are the possible consequences of the chosen response? Are the identified consequences acceptable in this situation? Was the chosen response correct for this situation? What can be learned from the occurrence?In this section, we have examined levels of arousal throug quence of behaviours along with identifying the negative aspects of arousal: an- ger and violence. level and p The next section will examine how we can further the goal of cooperation, ideally without physical intervention. PHY CRISIS INTERVENTION USIN AND DE-ESCALATION Proxem de-escalation De-escalation is an abnormal reaction to a stressful occurrence. We are pro- of the d the process of grammed to avoid confrontation that may endanger us. But avoidance is usually Usi implementing strategies to reduce the intensity of not an option for law enforcement officers. manag conflict or crisis situation Because of the fight-or-flight response explained in Chapter 1, changes in shoul to a level that allows rational thought and thought patterns, such as tunnel vision, and physical reactions, such as increased Peopl rathe behaviour respiratory and heart rate, may interfere with officers' ability to effectively communi- cate. If appropriate in the situation, using controlled breathing techniques, described cond in Chapter 2, may reduce the physical and psychological effects of the response. depe Do not attempt to use controlled breathing techniques if you are engaged in a physical confrontation. It will be counterproductive. If you try to consciously dist breathe slowly during a physical engagement you may interfere with your body's ability to increase the oxygen uptake required to fight or take flight from the threat. In Before we discuss de-escalation procedures, we should identify a few "do nots." These behaviours will not help de-escalate the situation and may cause it to escalate. luisossq sCO- fion CHAPTER 3 PROBLEM MANAGEMENT 89 Do not: . Invalidate their needs/wants. Avoid exhibiting any verbal or non- verbal behaviour that tells the person that they, their feelings, or their problem don't matter. . Label the person. For example: you are a druggie, a loser, useless, etc. Use insulting language. . Use mocking behaviours. . Use threatening gestures or verbal threats. Become adversarial. When confronted, the person will often respond by defending their position. The behaviours above are ego-based and have no place in professional or personal interactions. Now that we know what not to do, let's discuss some effective techniques that will help to de-escalate a situation. Verbal intervention is often the most appropriate way to de-escalate. While you are communicating verbally with the person(s), they should be aware that you are also communicating non-verbally through your posture, positioning, an- and movement. Initially, the person(s) will react to your non-verbal messages more than your verbal messages. on, Following are some intervention techniques that will assist with reducing arousal level and promote cooperation and de-escalation of a conflict or crisis situation. PHYSICAL ASPECTS USING PROXEMICS Proxemics was discussed in Chapter 2. Using proxemics is the beginning stage of the de-escalation process. Using space as a communication and safety tool can lead to more effectively managing conflict situations. When you approach and speak with a person, you should consider distance as well as the direction of your approach and stance. People will be less anxious if you approach at an angle toward the person's side rather than making a direct frontal approach. Approaching from the rear is not conducive with developing a rapport, although it is sometimes advantageous depending upon the situation. Recall from Chapter 2 that space can be categorized into four general distances: Intimate distance ranges from contact to approximately 18 inches (45 cm). Invading intimate space may result in an angry reaction. Personal space ranges from 18 inches (45 cm) to 4 feet (1.2 m). This is the space in which friends are allowed. Uninvited strangers may increase the per- son's stress level and hinder communication.PART I UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT Social distance is the space ranging from 4 feet (1.2 m) to 12 feet (3.6 m) and stance in which impersonal communication takes place. c distance is from 12 feet (3.6 m) and beyond, depending upon the physical limits of the space available. For your own safety, always be aware of how close the parties are to you. Some other procedures that may assist with effective and safe officer inter- vention include the following: . Obtain as much information as possible about the circumstances of the call for service. . If possible, intervene with a partner. . If responding to a residence, police officers should check for records of calls for service to the residence and for any police records pertaining to the occupants of the residence. . Visually scan the area and person(s) for the presence of alcohol or other drugs and biohazards, such as needles; look for weapons or access to anything that could be used as a weapon. . Look for indicators of anger and potential violence. . Look for indicators of apparent mental illness such as hallucinations, delusions, or psychosis. (See Chapters 4 and 5.) . Do not stand directly in front of the person. The person may view a frontal position as confrontational and become more anxious. Position yourself at an angle to the person(s) with your strong leg/arm slightly behind. (If you are carrying a firearm, this position will help you to or protect/hold onto your firearm if the person acts aggressively toward effe you.) Keep both hands open in a semi-relaxed, non-threatening ass is defensive position, not by your side. If the person moves, you should try to maintain a 30- to 45-degree angle to the person, if possible. This pro is not always possible if turning in that direction would indicate to the person(s) that you are withdrawing from the conversation. V . Gain the attention of the person(s) as soon as you have identified Th that there is no immediate threat. If there is an immediate threat, you vi should refer to the use of force model (see Chapter 2). TH fir . Ask if you can be of assistance, loudly, if the first request does not ot gain the person's attention. You must gain their attention before you can gain control. Do not threaten the person(s) to gain their attention (for example, "Pay attention to me or else!"). An unusual request is an effective strategy that can be used to gain the attention of the person(s) if no indicators of violence are identified. For example, while the person is still engaged in a verbal disagreement, you might ask, "May I have a glass of water?" This tactic often gains the person's attention, althoughCHAPTER 3 PROBLEM MANAGEMENT 91 not always with a positive response. Expect that the person may point out the absurdity of your request, sometimes using "vulgar" language. If more than one person is involved in the situation, position them so that they do not have eye contact with each other. This can be done by separating the parties, ideally with a partner, through positioning of the intervening officers. A common technique is for the responding officers to safely position themselves so that the parties are back to back at a distance where they cannot make physical contact. . If you are responding with a partner, always keep some eye contact with your partner. Also maintain eye contact with the person(s) while avoiding excessive eye contact. You can use eye contact to control the flow of the conversation once de-escalation has taken place, but continuous eye contact can be viewed as threatening. Allow the person to look away. Use your hands to help direct the flow of conversation. Do not point or shake your finger at the person(s). This may be viewed as judgmental and demeaning. Arousal levels may increase in response. . Minimize your body movements. Sudden movements can escalate anxiety and arousal. Fidgeting may indicate to the person that you are not focused on the conversation. Remember that the person is consciously and subconsciously evaluating your body language. Some non-verbal indicators of evaluating include head tilting, chin stroking, or pinching the bridge of the nose. The person could be evaluating your ability to effectively intervene. When you have gained the attention of the person(s), have assessed the potential of an angry or violent response, and are satisfied that there is no immediate safety issue, you can begin the next phase of the de-escalation progression: verbal intervention. VERBAL INTERVENTION The goal of verbal intervention is to de-escalate arousal level(s) to create an en- vironment that allows or encourages the person to cooperate and collaborate. The first phase of verbal de-escalation is building rapport. Rapport can be de- rapport a relationship based on the fined as a relationship based on the premise that each person understands the premise that each person other's perspective. understands the other's perspective ESTABLISHING RAPPORT It is not possible to have a rational conversation with an extremely angry person. If safe to do so, allow the person to vent their feelings of anger in non-violent ways, such as shouting. The reduction in tension after venting is often enough to de-escalate the person's anger to a level that allows rational conversation.PART I UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT When If there are indicators of potential violence, refer to the use of force model ing your fi (see Chapter 2). When we Your presence may provoke some emotions and feelings that may aggravate tion away the person's feelings of anger and cause them to react negatively. These include: with you. ing the per . feeling confined rapport b . feeling that they have no options . feeling humiliated . feeling embarrassed . feeling scared THE . feeling anxious. Even v Recognize that these are common feelings when experiencing anger and potent ensure that your verbal and non-verbal behaviours are controlled and non- inform threatening, so as to not intensify the anger to the point that the person will stater tion p react aggressively. In the majority of situations, anger will naturally decrease with sion o time. Note that this is not always the case; some people are perpetually angry. or any You can tell the person that you understand that they are angry but that it is M not acceptable for them to direct their anger toward you. Your language should M be respectful and assertive, not aggressive. ition Based upon your observations of verbal and non-verbal behaviours, you should make determine the person's level of arousal. Is the person exhibiting behaviours of defen- SAN siveness, aggression, or violence? The following describes these three behaviours. Dep Defensiveness occurs when the person is actively defending their position on situa the conflict and may be identified by the person's language, tone, and volume. am The defensive person may use offensive language, be verbally insulting, and use derogatory language directed toward the officer. Defensiveness may escalate to Sar aggression if the person stops thinking/behaving rationally when defending their You position. Your calm, supportive verbal and non-verbal communication usually de-escalates defensive behaviour. Aggression can be displayed through shouting, swearing, and the person's ada- mant, unreasonable defence of their position in the conflict situation. There may also be verbal threats and verbal belligerence. Aggression will typically subside Sa with time and with the use of effective de-escalation methods. Physical contact You with a person displaying aggression will likely increase the person's aggressive behaviour, possibly resulting in a violent reaction. If the person is not posing a danger to self or others, don't overreact; let the aggression dissipate naturally. If the person is not under the influence of a mind-altering drug, or experiencing a psychotic episode, they will likely become tired emotionally and physically. Often the person will feel remorse for their actions when they regain rationality. Aggressive behaviour should not be confused with violent behaviour. Indicators of potentially violent behaviour have been previously identified, If st violent behaviour is indicated, refer to the use of force model (see Chapter 2). mCHAPTER 3 PROBLEM MANAGEMENT 93 When you have determined that it is safe to do so, introduce yourself us- ing your first name and ask for the person's first name and permission to use it. When we personalize an interaction, the party(s) may begin to focus their atten- tion away from the situation and, hopefully, be willing to engage in a dialogue with you. This first brief interaction begins the de-escalation process by divert- ing the person's immediate attention from the situation and begins to establish a rapport between you. THE IMPORTANCE OF VOLUNTARINESS Even while working to develop a rapport and de-escalate a situation, officers must remain aware of the potential legal aspect of a verbal exchange. A person may admit something to an officer, but how that information is given has legal consequences. In Ibrahim v The King, a 1914 decision, the court stated: "No statement made by an accused person to a person in authority is admissible evidence unless the prosecu tion proves that the statement was voluntarily made." This ruling gave us the Confession Rule: Any confes- sion obtained must be voluntary and free from inducements. Inducements are promises, threats, favours, or any action that may be perceived as an effort to coerce the suspect into making a statement. Major inducements include acts of violence or threats of violence Minor inducements include any promise or action that would lead a person to believe that their pos- ition with respect to a charge or their safety would be better or worse depending on whether or not they make a statement (for example, the use of phrases such as "It would be better if..."). SAMPLE CAUTION AND RIGHT TO LEGAL COUNSEL Depending on the circumstances, an officer may need to advise a person of their legal rights, once the situation has been de-escalated and any threat of violence has subsided. Note that the wording may differ among law enforcement agencies. Use the wording provided by your employing agency. Sample Caution You are under arrest for (or may be charged with) [state the offence]. Do you wish to say anything in answer to the charge? You are not obliged to say anything unless you wish to do so. Anything you say may be given in evidence. Do you understand? Sample Right to Legal Counsel - Adult You are under arrest for [state the offence] You have the right to retain and instruct counsel without delay. You have the right to telephone any lawyer you wish. You have the right to free legal advice from a Legal Aid lawyer. If you wish to speak with a Legal Aid Duty Counsel lawyer for legal advice, a toll-free number is 1-800-265-0451 (Ontario). Do you understand? Do you wish to speak with legal counsel? The Supreme Court of Canada has indicated that the best evidence is an audio/video recording of a statement. Another method to demonstrate to the court that the statement was free from inducements is to record in your notebook, verbatim, the response(s) of a suspect to the caution. Right to legal counsel may also be introduced in court as proof of voluntariness.UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT Some things to consider that may help you develop rapport: CHAPTER 3 PROBLEM MANAGEMENT 95 . Remain outwardly calm and non-threatening. possible outcome of non-cooperation. "This may give the person(s) a After you introduce yourself, begin by telling the person($) that you are sense of control because they will be able to make a choice. Some may not care about being told the negative consequences of their actions there to help. but may be interested in how cooperating will benefit them. . Use inclusive language such as "we," "together," and "with your help." . Listen actively and effectively (see Chapter 2). (If you are a peace Don't use "you" language such as "You are responsible" or "You listen officer and you determine that an offence has taken place and that the to me!" The use of "you" messages can be viewed as threatening and person may be charged, be sure that you "caution" the person before continuing the conversation. ) may escalate the person's arousal level. Use language that instills hope of a positive outcome. For example, "We Allow time for the person(s) to respond. The person(s) may not have full emotional control of their thoughts and may take a few seconds to can manage this problem." respond. Don't rush them. Don't try to "outshout" a person who is shouting. If the person in crisis Remain open-minded and non-judgmental when you reply. is not in control of their emotions and you are not in control of yours, who is in control of the situation? Speak calmly to the person in a Other than the possibility of violence or the commission of an offence, there controlled tone. may be no right or wrong outcome for you to determine. You need only to de- If the person continues to shout, speak at a slower pace. The person escalate the crisis to a level at which the person(s) responds rationally and poses no threat to self or others. will likely respond to your calm, slower speech pattern by beginning to follow your speech pattern or at least focusing on it. If the person HAPTICS begins to focus on what you are saying, they will begin to de-escalate Haptics is communication through touch. Touch can have a powerful effect on reducing a person's level of arousal if it is used at the appropriate time. It can haptics as their thoughts become diverted from the immediate cause of their communication through crisis. If they still do not regain control, remember that they will at also have the opposite effect and increase the anxiety level of a person who has touch some point reach the exhaustion stage and begin to tire. exceeded their level of coping ability. If you are going to use haptics, touch only Another technique that is useful in the de-escalation process is the person's arm between the shoulder and elbow. Don't surprise the person. mirroring. During the course of the conversation, begin to copy Approach from the side while speaking with a calm, controlled voice. Frontal or "mirror" the suspect's posture and gestures. Be careful with the approaches may be viewed as threatening. Use touch only when the person is behaviours that you choose to mirror. Do not emulate negative rational and you have determined that there are no indicators of anger, aggres- behaviours. Tactfully displaying positive gestures and behaviours will sion, or potentially violent behaviour. usually de-escalate aggressive behaviours and assist with developing Be extremely cautious when using haptics in any type of conflict situation. a more positive rapport. Be subtle with your "mirroring" behaviours. Don't directly imitate the person. This could lead to an escalation in aggression if the person views your behaviour as mocking. DAMAGING RAPPORT . Set limits on the person's behaviours. Don't make the limits Rapport can easily be damaged through certain actions and inactions, including complicated. The person in crisis is not likely to be thinking the following: rationally. Make the choice simple. When you set behavioural limits, Arguing. It is common for a person in crisis to argue. The person is make sure that the outcome of the limit is positive, For example, defending their position in the dispute, logically or illogically. Do not 'Stop shouting or you will be arrested" does not have a positive outcome. "When you stop shouting, we can have a conversation" has argue with them. a positive outcome. Trying to impress with vocabulary. People find comfort when . Not everyone will cooperate, and some may challenge you. A they are with those who are similar to themselves. Try to "mirror" technique that may be helpful in gaining cooperation is to calmly the person's vocabulary if you can do so without coming across as identify to the person(s) the reason they should cooperate and the insincere. Speaking in a way that is above the person's level can suggest arrogance.6 PARTI UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT Downgrading the importance of something the person said. People will say things that they feel are important to say. The statement or question may not appear to have relevance to the situation, but it is CHAPTER 3 PROBLEM MANAGEMENT 97 important to the person. Take the time to listen. able to provide long-term assistance with the problem, but you can ensure that Finishing a person's sentence. When you do this, it gives the the person is safe, has a coherent state of mind, and, if applicable, has informa tion about ongoing support. Note that assessing whether the person is thinking Impression that you are inconvenienced by the pace at which the person rationally is a common element throughout the process. is speaking. During normal conversation, we speak at a rate of between When assessing risk, you need to ask yourself a few questions. 125 and 150 words per minute. We can process information ten times Is it safe to immediately engage in the situation? Are there environmental faster than we can speak. While the person is speaking, the listener risks in the area (blood-borne pathogens, weapons, pets such as dogs, drugs, needles, other persons in the area, etc.)? may be processing the pictures on the wall, the type of vehicle that just Is medical assistance required? passed, the non-verbal language of the person, etc., or predicting what the person is likely to say. Not allowing the person to finish what they rationally? . Does the person's level of arousal allow them to think and behave want to say is not conducive to effective communication. . Does the person(s) pose a danger to themselves? . Interrupting the person. This behaviour breaks the flow of the . Does the person(s) pose a danger to others? thought process. It leaves the impression that your thoughts are more important than the thoughts of the person in crisis. Are there indications of an apparent mental disorder? (See Chapters 4 and 5.) . Interpreting what the person is saying. Rather than assuming what the person is trying to convey, ask them to clarify, rather than risk If no medical assistance is required and a safe environment has been established, interpreting incorrectly. try to determine what is causing a problem right now. When the immediate Ignoring emotions. An intervening officer(s) may frequently deal with problem has been identified and the immediate symptoms of crisis have dimin- ished, try to determine the underlying issue(s). persons in crisis. Thus, there is a danger of overlooking the person's perspective. Acknowledging and empathizing with the person's Some questions that will assist with determining the cause and severity of the crisis include: emotions helps build rapport. . Is the person thinking and behaving rationally? Not looking at the person when they talk. When you avoid eye contact, even inadvertently, it leaves the impression that you are not . What is the immediate problem? interested. Maintain "normal" eye contact. . What caused the situation to escalate? . Asking a question, then not listening to the answer. This conveys . Is immediate apprehension or arrest appropriate? disrespect and indifference. Determine the answers to these questions one at a time. Don't overwhelm When a rapport has been established and indications of cooperation are pres- the person(s) with numerous questions. Ask short, direct questions that they ent, focus on assessing the severity and cause of the crisis and decide on an ap- can easily answer with little explanation. You may ask for further information propriate response. later in the intervention if you need to. Remember to allow time for the person to answer. Silence may be viewed as being non-cooperative, but if the person is ASSESSING THE SITUATION rational, silence generally means that they are trying to regain their perspective When we assess a situation, we rely on both implied and observed information. of the situation, especially if they have experienced a crisis with accompanying We consider, consciously or subconsciously, what we have learned, observed, loss of emotional control. and experienced when making an assessment. The first part of the assessment is assessing risk. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION ASSESSING RISK A strategy to manage a problem cannot be reached until the problem is accur- ately identified. The problem may be obvious to the parties involved but not to Your assessment should be quick, using all available information. Your im- an outsider. Perception is reality: if the person believes there is a problem, then mediate goal is to help the person reach a state of equilibrium. You may not be there is one.98 PARTI UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT be careful when attempting to determine the cause of a problem. The im mediate occurrence may merely be evidence of a deeper problem. Addressing CHAPTERS PROBLEM MANAGEMENT 9 the current problem is necessary, but may do little to resolve the fundamems cause of the conflict. Careful observation and active listening may help identify When you have identified the issue(s), don't minimize the seriousness of the crisis. Remember, perception is reality. If the person perceives that the problem the central cause of the conflict. is serious, it is serious for them. Through positive, empathetic, non-judgmental to accurately diagnose the basis of a problem, be methodical and collect all Conversation, help the person understand that the problem can be managed. Pertinent information relating to the conflict. You must use your best judgment Sometimes an unbiased, objective view may help the person realize that the problem is manageable. to determine what information is important and what is not. Analyzing the conflict accurately will allow you to more precisely identify the problem. This RESPONSE analysis requires good judgment, an understanding of verbal and non-verbs modes of communication, and the ability to remain objective. As in the assessment phase, there are several questions you can ask yourself to assist with determining a response. Allow the person(s) to explain their view of the situation. Let the person speak without interruption. This will allow them to vent their feelings and may Is the person thinking and behaving rationally? . Is it safe to leave the person alone? reduce the level of arousal. As previously stated, if you are a peace officer, be sure to caution the person . Does the person pose a risk to others? if they begin to give you details of their involvement in an offence. Cautioning a . Is apprehension or arrest appropriate? person by informing them of the possible negative legal consequences of speaking may seem counterproductive to the goal of the intervention, but it is legally required. After answering these questions and determining that the person is rational After identifying the problem, you should clarify your understanding of the and poses no danger, respond by assisting the person with their problem, if possible. problem. Some clarification techniques include: . Can you assist, or is the problem beyond the scope of your time and Repeating key words. For example, if the person in crisis uses the word ability? "hopeless" in the conversation, you repeat the word "hopeless." By If you determine that you can assist, explore options with the emphasizing the word, you may encourage the person to elaborate on person (s): the feelings they have related to the word. Be careful to not overuse the - Does the person(s) want further assistance? If so, provide contact repetition of key words. It sometimes makes people feel uneasy, if they information. perceive that you are imitating them. . Is there a Community Crisis Response Team available if further Restating or paraphrasing the person's statements. Paraphrasing intervention is necessary? encourages the person to explain the situation in more detail by requiring them to focus on the stated problem. . Are there social agencies available that could assist with the problem? Asking direct questions, Ask questions if you are confused or don't Ensure that you allow the person to manage their problem. You are understand what the person is telling you. It is better to ask than there to assist, not to solve their problem. to misunderstand and form your response based on an inaccurate When you have reached a problem-management strategy that satisfies assessment. Asking for clarification also lets the person know that you are the person(s), be sure that the person(s) takes responsibility for interested in what they are saying and that you want to help, When you ask carrying out the "solution." questions, ask open questions that require more than a yes or no answer. The most often used strategies that you may use to help the person(s) manage . Determining thought processes. Try to ask questions that identify what their problem fall into two general categories: enforcement and referral. the person is thinking rather than what they are feeling. For example, don't say something like "Tell me how you feel." A more effective You may be required to enforce a violation of a statute in cases such as statement would be "Help me understand the problem" Feelings may an assault or trespassing, or be difficult to describe, especially if the person has experienced a crisis. Having the person bring their attention to their thoughts assists with You may refer the person(s) to the appropriate community or social helping the person regain rational thought after a crisis, agency for further assistance.100 PARTI UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT most situations not requiring enforcement will de-escalate when you are stole to help the person(s) regain control of their emotions and behaviour. The Person(s) can usually carry out their problem-management solution when me Conflicts more likely to be resolved through mediation by an officer are iso CHAPTER 3 PROBLEM MANAGEMENT 101 immediate problem has been dealt with. lated incidents in which the parties are unlikely to have contact with each other some problems will take more time and effort. These situations may involve In the future, or situations in which intervening officers were involved at the very beginning of the conflict. mediation to reach an equitable solution. If the problem is a recent one, you may be able to offer assistance or ad- vice. But solving a long-term problem is likely beyond the scope of your PREPARING FOR MEDIATION responsibilities. Using your investigation skills, determine whether the problem is a one-time, mediation Mediation may be defined as assisted negotiation or third-party intervention. It acute problem or an ongoing, chronic problem. A chronic problem may require may be used when the parties are unable to reach a mutually agreeable solution to long-term intervention or counselling by professionals who are better equipped assisted negotiation in to deal with the problem. Referring the problem to an appropriate community which a third party helps their problem without assistance. The goal of mediation is to have the disputants the disputants resolve their disagreements themselves resolve their disagreement themselves with some guidelines and assistance. In most or social service agency may be your best response to chronic problems if you cases, the intervening officer cannot solve a problem that was created by others. have concluded that your immediate presence is of little value in helping solve Mediation may be a frustrating process for those who like to be problem- the problem. However, referral should not be the first option for chronic prob- solvers. This frustration may lead to feelings of anger, either about the initial lems if you believe that the conflict could escalate to the point where public or circumstances of the problem or about the inability of the parties to reach a con- personal safety is threatened. Your first priority, after ensuring your own safety, s to protect all parties. sensus or to follow the mediation rules as outlined above. There are some steps Some situations, such as child custody disputes, family property disputes, or that you can take to reduce the likelihood of angry reactions. Develop an action plan. You must have a professional and non-antagonistic similar disputes, are better dealt with through means other than mediation. In such situations, it is not possible for intervening officers to reach a legal agree- action plan before entering the mediation process. ment between the parties. The role of intervening officers in such matters is that Avoid an all-or-nothing approach. Mediation is a process of compromise. of a peacekeeper. Provide information to the parties on how to proceed to civil There is no winner. The objective is to reach a consensus that results in no one or family court or how to obtain the services of a lawyer. feeling that they are the losing party. Decide that you will allow the parties to speak their minds and state their pos- itions. You cannot predict what they are going to say, nor should you jump to THE MEDIATION PROCESS conclusions. Do not exacerbate the problem. No matter how serious you believe the prob- If the decision is to mediate, formulate a plan for the mediation. The following lem may be, the problem is not yours. There is no need to make the problem suggestions may help you achieve a successful outcome: bigger when seen from your perspective. If the parties are able to manage the Reiterate the nature of the problem. All parties should clearly understand and problem through mediation, and the danger of violent reactions has been gree on the nature of the problem. averted, the mediation was successful. State the intended outcome of the mediation. All parties should understand Do not display anger during mediation. Displaying anger may show that you with and agree on the goals and purpose of the mediation. are not in control. This will only aggravate the situation. Physically separate the parties, but ensure that they are within speaking distance. Effective mediation relies on several assumptions: Keeping the parties separate reduces the probability of physical confrontations. . The parties voluntarily agree to mediation Ensure that one officer is in charge of the mediation. Conflicting comments by different officers can confuse the parties and hinder the mediation process. The parties agree to discuss their issues in a non-adversarial manner Establish the ground rules for the interaction. The parties will each be allowed . The mediator will act as a neutral third party to speak and explain their views on the dispute. Allow both parties to state their conflict The parties agree to hear the submissions of each party involved in the positions. Do not interrupt unless necessary. Each party will be asked to listen to the concerns of the other party without interrupting. Everyone concerned will . The parties agree to allow you, as mediator, to help them reach a be asked to agree on the ground rules. If agreement is not reached, the mediation consensus (if possible). may be a wasted effort, because the parties may not be sincere in their commit- ment to resolve the problem.102 PARTI UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT Separate personalities from the problem to avoid bias and help speed up the process bias, if allowed to enter into the process, may negate any advantage of mediation reasonable. You may have to concede that you are unable to effectively mediate CHAPTER 3 PROBLEM MANAGEMENT 103 the parties should be directed to address the problem, not personalities. Persons For example, if a particular individual is perceived to be the problem and is treated sonable time. The situation and are unable to help the parties reach an agreement within a rea as such, the other parties may not be willing to listen to his or her suggest r suggestions about There will be occasions when the parties will begin to argue, usually when resolving the issues, because they already "know" who the problem is. Their bias defending their position in the dispute. Although this is a violation of the ground may predetermine the outcome of the mediation and doom it to failure. rules, you may decide to continue with mediation if you believe that progress is Summarize the parties' understandings of the problem once they have had the being made. You must not allow the argument to continue, however. opportunity to speak. Your summary should be presented to the parties, and each Here are some tactics that can be used to interrupt an argument and gain the person's attention before the situation escalates: party should be asked whether the problem has been clearly stated. There should be a consensus among the parties about the accuracy of your interpretation of . Make a surprise request or comment. Questions such as "May I have the problem. The summary should be clear and descriptive. Descriptive language a glass of water?" or "What's cooking on the stove?" can focus the parties' attention on the officer. helps convey that you understand the party's summary of the problem. Care must be taken not to use negative descriptors such as "I understand that the . Use eye contact to control the flow of conversation. Through eye contact, problem is your failure to ..." or "I understand that the problem is that you do you may be able to express displeasure with a person's conduct. If you not understand ..." Negative descriptions, even if accurate, may interfere with keep eye contact with the person you want to speak with and refrain the parties' perception of your objectivity, lessening the chances of a positive from eye contact with the person you want to remain silent, that person will usually stop interrupting the conversation. Remind that outcome from the mediation. person of the ground rules that they agreed to. Ask the parties for solutions once the problem has been identified. The dispu- tants created the problem and only they can resolve it. If solutions are not pro- Interject with a summary of the problem. If the parties begin to argue, posed, identify common goals shared by all parties. Identifying common goals the officer can interject with a summary of his or her understanding may assist the parties in directing their focus toward the things they have in of the problem. The parties should then be asked whether the officer's common and away from their differences. Effective listening skills are essen- understanding is accurate. This diverts attention back to the identified tial to being able to identify common goals. You will need to be able to identify issue . commonalities, if any, from earlier conversations and observations. There will Do nothing/Stare at the parties. (Safety has already been assured.) generally be some common goals unless the parties have entered into a dispute Most people will expect the officer to intervene. If the officer does during their first contact, such as in the case of a dispute over a parking space. nothing but stare, the parties may feel uncomfortable arguing in front Mediation is not likely to be effective in such cases. It is more likely that you will of an audience. When you use this technique, you may have negative direct the solution to the problem. comments directed toward you. Ignore the comments. The objective is Take care not to ridicule any proposed solutions. Remember that the dispute to divert their attention to you and away from each other. (Try silently is not your problem, and therefore it is not your place to belittle proposed solu- staring at someone having a conversation with another person. Silently tions. Remain respectful. look at both persons. They will soon divert their attention toward you.) When a solution is proposed, ask the other parties whether the proposal is vi- able. Take care not to interject your personal opinion. If asked for an opinion, politely decline. Do not offer solutions. EVALUATING THE MEDIATION PROCESS When an adequate compromise is reached, ask each person if they are willing to After the occurrence, evaluate your handling of the situation. Doing so will help abide by the agreement. Once a consensus is reached, confirm that all parties are satisfied and that your presence is no longer required, then leave. This is called you recognize any anger or frustration you felt during the mediation and will the reconciliation phase. help you overcome, or at least prevent from becoming apparent, such feelings in It may not always be possible for the parties to reach a consensus within a future mediations. Ask yourself the following questions: reasonable time. What is a reasonable time? There is no single answer. It depends 1. Did I avoid linear thinking? Did I resort to all-or-nothing solutions, on the complexity of the problem, the time available, and the willingness of the anticipate the thoughts and responses of the parties, or amplify the disputants to work toward a consensus. Use your judgment to determine what is problem or perceived personality "problems"?104 PARTI UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT 2. How did I react when the parties confronted me? Did I take the confrontational situation personally? Did I remain calm and in control? 3. How well did I recognize and control my anger? Did I recognize my Alv own body signals (tense muscles, increased heart rate, agitation, etc.)? Did I use breathing and internal relaxation techniques to control my emotional responses? 4. Did I deal with my emotions after the occurrence? Did I talk to someone about stress management? Have I made a plan to alleviate my anger in future situations-for example, control my overall stress through healthy physical and relaxation activities? It is important that you have a healthy outlet for suppressed anger. Physical exercise and using relaxation techniques are the best solutions for controlling levels of cumulative anger.boks of side ed vern pov LEARNING SCENARIOS LEARNING SCENARIO 3.14 MENTAL ILLNESS AND PERSONALITY DISORDERS LEARNING OUTCOMES Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to: . Determine, from the perspective of a police officer, what constitutes a mental illness. . Recognize the prevalence of mental illness. . Recognize common mental illnesses. . Identify some of the common symptoms of mental illness. . Distinguish between fact and misconceptions about non-suicidal, self-injurious behaviours. Identify some of the more common personality disorders. 111112 PART II MENTAL ILLNESS AND SUICIDE INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 4 MENTAL ILLNESS AND PERSONALITY DISORDERS 113 this chapter will discuss the identification of mental illness, psychological disor. ders, and personality disorders from the perspective of police intervention. The MEDIA INFLUENCE ON PUBLIC ATTITUDES chapter describes in some detail information about the more common mental it nesses and disorders encountered by police. The information presented, however, media and entertainmentindustry may play a role in negatively stereotyping persons who have ible not to be used to attempt to diagnose any specific mental illness or disorder. The in. (Statistionalize violent acts by someone with a mental illness are often featured as headline news Men requently depict negative stereotypes of persons with mental health conditions herently violent) Stories that formation is generic and is presented only for the purpose of furthering awareness eduech portrayals can lead to fear and misunderstanding arnong those uneducated in the realities of ffacts of mental illness. People naturally fear what they don't understand, stigmatization can be there of misunderstanding. THE STIGMA OF MENTAL ILLNESS mise Canadian Mental Health Association publishes the following guidelines to help empower each of The term "mental illness" encompasses a wide variety of disorders and illnesses is to speak out against the stigmatization of mental illness in the medi to the STOP criteria to help dispel attitudes and actions that support the stigma of mental health con- ranging from anxiety and depressive disorders to bipolar disorder and schizo- ditions. It's easy. Just ask yourself if what you hear: phrenia. Mental illnesses have no single cause. They may result from a combina- Stereotypes people with mental health conditions ( that is, assumes they are all alike rather than individuals). tion of social, economic, psychological, biological, and genetic factors similar to those that influence our overall health and well-being. . Trivializes or belittles people with mental health conditions and/ or the condition itself. . Offends people with mental health conditions by insulting them. Symptoms of mental illnesses can exhibit as behaviours, thoughts, and emo- Patronizes people with mental health conditions by treating them as if they were not as good ions that interfere with everyday life and interpersonal interactions. The type, as other people. intensity, recurrence, and duration of symptoms can vary widely from person to If you see something in the media that does not pass the STOP criteria, speak up! Call or write to the person. writer or publisher of the newspaper, magazine, or book; the radio, TV, or movie producer, or the adver- Society is uncomfortable with mental illness. It is human nature to fear what tiser who used words that add to the misunderstanding of mental illness. Help them to realize how their words affect people with mental health conditions. we don't understand. When a person appears to be different, society may view Start with yourself. Be thoughtful about your own choice of words. Use accurate and sensitive words when talking about people with mental health conditions. them in a negatively stereotyped manner. Persons who are perceived negatively by society are said to be stigmatized. Stigma is a reality for people with a men- Source: Canadian Mental Health Association (2018b). al illness. Because of stigma, a typical reaction encountered by someone with a mental illness (and by their family members) is fear and rejection. The stigma experienced by persons with a mental illness can be more destructive than the Because mental illnesses involve disorders of brain functioning, medication often illness itself. forms an important part of treatment. Receiving and complying with effective The serious stigma and discrimination attached to mental illness are among treatment and having the security of strong social supports, adequate income, the most tragic realities facing persons with mental illnesses. Stigma and dis- housing, and educational opportunities are essential elements in minimizing the crimination result from a lack of knowledge and empathy, along with a tendency impact of mental illness. to fear and exclude people who are perceived to be different. This stigmatization Police officers are often the first point of access to services for persons with may convince people that it is in their best interests to remain quiet about their mental illness. Responding officers who further stigmatize through prejudicial mental illness. This may cause them to delay seeking help. They may also avoid or discriminatory actions will greatly diminish the possibility that the person sharing their symptoms with family, friends, co-workers, employers, health will seek assistance. service providers, and others in the community. A 2014 report commissioned by the Standing Committee on Public Safety The Mental Health Commission of Canada (2013) identified that 49 percent and National Security notes that there has been an increase in police responding of those who have suffered from depression or anxiety did not seek treatment to mental health related occurrences. The exact percentage increase is difficult to because of the stigma or discrimination attached to mental illnesses. determine as there are no standardized national guidelines for reporting police This can cause serious problems. Most mental illnesses can be treated. Timely contact with persons with mental health issues. intervention through treatment is essential. Untreated mental illness may result in Studies by police services in Ontario suggest that police contact with people who lasting disability. A variety of interventions, such as psychotherapy and cognitive have mental health issues are on the rise. Note that the following data may not be dir- behavioural therapy, can improve an individual's functioning and quality of life. ectly comparable between police services due to different incident recording procedures.114 PART II MENTAL ILLNESS AND SUICIDE One study (Durbin et al., 2010), based on data from 25 police services in Ontario, found that the rate of mental health related calls for service increased CHAPTER 4 MENTAL ILLNESS AND PERSONALITY DISORDERS 115 from 287 per 100,000 population in 2003 to 397 per 100,000 population in 2064 A study for the Toronto Police Service (Iacobucci, 2014) found that in 2013 About 1 percent of Canadians will experience bipolar disorder (a.ka. "manic depression"). more than 1 in every 50 calls for which an officer was dispatched involved . Schizophrenia affects 1 percent of the total Canadian population. Person in crisis, while approximately 1 in every 100 calls resulted in an appre . Anxiety disorders affect 5 percent of the population, causing mild to severe impairment. hension under the Mental Health Act. In Guelph, Ontario, calls for service related to a mental health issue increased by 39 percent between 2012 and 2013, while the overall calls for service volume Approximately 8 percent of adults will experience major depression at some time in their lives. decreased by 6 percent over the same period (Guelph Police Service, 2013). Approximately 5 percent of male youth and 12 percent of female Police services in London, Ontario reported that persons with mental health youth, aged 12 to 19, have experienced a major depressive episode. issues experienced three to five times more contact with police per year than persons Without. Costs associated with mental health calls appear to be similarly increasing- . Of the nearly 4,000 Canadians who die every year by suicide, more than 90 percent were living with a mental illness (Public Health London Police reported a 134 percent increase in costs related to police contact with Agency of Canada, 2016). persons with mental health issues between 2000 and 2011 (Heslop et al., 2011). Suicide is the second leading cause of death in 15- to 24-year-old While not conclusive, these studies seem to indicate that, in Ontario, there has Canadians, second only to accidents. been an increase in police contact with persons experiencing mental illnesses. Because of the inevitability of contact with mentally ill persons, it is important . Canada's youth suicide rate is the third highest in the industrialized world. that officers be able to recognize the symptoms and behaviours associated with Suicide accounts for 24 percent of all deaths among 15- to 24-year-olds and 16 percent among 25- to 44-year-olds. mental illness. A basic understanding of mental illness may help officers decide which response option they choose. This chapter will examine mental illness from the perspective of police inter- DETERMINING MENTAL ILLNESS vention. It will show how officers can identify mental illness symptoms, and it The following information may be used to determine whether a person is likely will discuss intervention strategies. Remember, the following information is gen- to be suffering from a mental illness within the meaning of the Mental Health eric and should not be used to attempt to diagnose a specific mental illness. Act (MHA) of Ontario. Mental illness, for the purpose of police intervention, may be defined as a de- mental illness for the purpose of police FACTS ABOUT MENTAL ILLNESS parture from "normal" thinking that interferes with a person's ability to effectively interact with their environment. This definition encompasses two general intervention, defined as a categories of mental disorders: those that cause psychotic symptoms (for ex- departure from "normal" The following statistics illustrate some of the important facts about mental ill- thinking that interferes ness in Canada (Canadian Mental Health Association, 2018a; Mental Health ample, hallucinations and delusions) and those that do not (for example, de- with a person's ability to Commission of Canada, 2013). pression, neuroses, and phobias). Both kinds of mental disorder may be equally effectively interact with their environment debilitating. . In any given year, one in five people in Canada will experience a mental health problem or illness. In deciding whether to apprehend a person who appears to be mentally ill, the officer must form reasonable grounds to believe that the person is suffering . In 2012, approximately 6.7 million people in Canada identified as having a mental illness. from a mental disorder and that as a result of the disorder is or will be a danger to themselves or to others. The officer also has grounds to apprehend if he or she Three million Canadians reported having a mood disorder characterized concludes that the person is unable to care for themselves as a result of a mental by mood swings or having an anxiety disorder characterized by disorder. excessive and persistent feelings of nervousness, anxiety, or fear. The MHA recognizes that it is unlikely that the attending officer will have the . More than 28 percent of people aged 20 to 29 experience a mental necessary expertise to diagnose a specific mental illness. Police need only conclude illness in any given year. that, on the basis of the actions of the person, he or she is likely suffering from a . By age 40, about 50 percent of the population will have or have had a mental illness. mental illness. Hallucinations, delusions, and psychosis are three of the more easily observed symptoms of mental disorders.116 PART II MENTAL ILLNESS AND SUICIDE hallucinations Hallucinations are experienced when a person senses (sees, hears, feel experiences of a person smells, tastes) things that do not exist. Persons experiencing delusions hold ght sonal beliefs that are false, inaccurate, or exaggerated, such as beliefs that they a CHAPTER 4 MENTAL ILLNESS AND PERSONALITY DISORDERS 117 sensing (seeing, hearing eeling, smelling, tasting) delusions the affected person may simultaneously experience hallucinations and delusionat may not be particularly effective in identifying the delusion, Persons experi things that do not exist a specific celebrity or well-known person, such as a politician. It is possible fire Psychosis is a disturbance in brain functioning, during which the person encing delusions may not always be honest about what they think or believe, especially if the delusions are paranoid. a defect in belief or Paranoid delusions are usually evidenced by extreme suspicion, fear, isola- thought processes that experiences loss of contact with reality. It is characterized by changes in on tion, insomnia (for fear of being harmed while asleep), and avoidance of med is not reasonable: false person's way of thinking, perceptions, and behaviour. Hallucinations, delusions, and psychosis can be symptomatic of a number ications (for fear of poisoning). A person experiencing paranoid delusions i beliefs psychosis of different mental illnesses. They may also be drug induced. Police need on extremely distrustful of others. They may misinterpret others' words and actions, and may view persons or things in their surroundings as a threat. It is possible a disturbance in brain that they may react violently to this perceived threat. Maintaining a safe distance unctioning, during which recognize the behaviours exhibited, not the underlying cause. It is not likely that the person experiences a layperson could distinguish between drug-induced hallucinations, delusions that allows you time to react will enhance your safety. oss of contact with reality or psychosis and those caused by a mental illness. In any situation involving a delusional person, it is important to keep yourself safe from potentially violent reactions and provide a comfort zone for the person HALLUCINATIONS experiencing delusions. The use of distance or barriers will assist with ensuring officer safety. It is not advisable to approach or touch the delusional person, un- The most common type of hallucination is the auditory hallucination. It often in- less you are apprehending them. cludes hearing voices that tell the person to do something (known as command hallucinations). Persons experiencing auditory hallucinations may appear to be pre- PSYCHOSIS occupied and unaware of their surroundings. They may talk audibly to themselves. Psychosis is a disturbance in brain functioning-usually a temporary one. Psychosis They may also have difficulty understanding or following conversations with others. is not an illness but rather a group of symptoms usually associated with schizophre Other sensory hallucinations may occur. These types of hallucinations may be nia and severe mood disorders like bipolar disorder. A psychotic person experi- identified by observing the person's interaction with the hallucination. The person ences loss of contact with reality, characterized by disorienting changes in their may be visually focused on something that others cannot see. Persons experiencing thinking, perception, and behaviour. The person is generally conscious of their sur- visual hallucinations may touch, scratch, or brush things off themselves that are not rounding environment. This consciousness may cause further disorientation and visible to others. Persons who sniff or hold their nose may be experiencing an olfac- distress as a result of their inability to distinguish between differing realities. tory hallucination. Continual spitting could indicate a hallucination involving taste. A person experiencing a psychotic episode may also be concurrently experi- Hallucinations can be frightening both for the person experiencing them and encing hallucinations and delusions. It is unlikely that the person will be able to communicate effectively with police. Confusion and the inability to deal with the for those who come in contact with that person. Ensuring everyone's safety and severe distress of the episode may result in outbursts of violence. There may be a providing calm, clear, and consistent messages that you want to help is the best immediate response. relationship between violent behaviour and uncontrollable symptoms of psycho- sis. The person could experience specific symptoms such as command hallucina- DELUSIONS grinshldsh tions or the belief that outside forces are controlling their thoughts. This is not to insinuate that persons experiencing psychosis are inherently violent, but, like Delusions are false beliefs. Common delusions include delusions of grandeur anyone, they have a threshold of stress tolerance that they may exceed. or delusions of being a famous person. Some people may experience paranoid delusions of persecution and may be afraid of authority figures. It is important to reassure the person that they are safe, and that you are not going to harm them. MENTAL ILLNESSES Inform the person that the uniform and equipment you carry are for protecting Note: The following information is sufficient only to identify that a mental illness yourself and others. Helping the person get treatment, while at the same time may be present and must not be used to attempt to diagnose sp