CONTENT In the study of the history of science and technology, another important area of interest involves the various intellectual revolutions across time. In this area, interest lies in how intellectual revolutions emerged as a result of the interaction of science and technology and of society. It covers how intellectual revolutions altered the way modern science was understood and approached. For this discussion, intellectual revolutions should not be confused with the Greek's pre-Socratic speculations about the behavior of the universe. In science and technology, intellectual revolutions refer to the series of events that led to the emergence of modern science and the progress of scientic thinking across critical periods in history. Although there are many intellectual revolutions, this section focuses three of the most important ones that altered the way humans view science and its impact on society: the Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian revolutions. In the words of French astronomer, mathematician, and freemason, Jean Sylvain Bailley (1976in Cohen, 1976), these scientic revolutions involved a two-stage process of sweeping away the old and establishing the new. In understanding intellectual revolutions, it is worth noting that these revolutions are, in themselves, paradigm shifts. These shifts resulted from a renewed and enlightened understanding of how the universe behaves and functions. They challenged long-held views about the nature of the universe. Thus, these revolutions were often met with huge resistance and controversy. Copernican Revolution Figure 22: Nicofaus Copernicus and his heliocentric model The Copernican Revolution refers to the 16th-century paradigm shift named after the Polish mathematician and astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus '-- formulated the heliocentric model of the universe. At the time, the belief was that the Earth was the center of the Solar System based on the geocentric model of Ptolemy [i.e., Ptolemaic model). Copernicus introduced the heliocentric model in a 40 pages outline entitled Commentariolus. He formalized his model in the publication of his treatise, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coefestium (The Revolution of Celestial Spheres) in 1543. In his model, Copernicus repositioned the Earth from the center of the Solar System and introduced the idea that the Earth rotates on its own axis. The model illustrated the Earth, along with other heavenly bodies, to be rotating around the Sun. The idea that the Sun is the center of the universe instead of the Earth proved to be unsettling to many when Copernicus rst introduced his model. In fact, the heliocentric model was met with huge resistance, primarily from the Church. accusing Copernicus of heresy. At the time, the idea that it was not the Earth, and, by extension, not man, that was the center of all creation was unthinkable. Copernicus faced persecution from the Church because of this. Moreover, although far more sensible than the Ptolemaic model, which as early as the 13\"1 century had been criticized for its shortcomings, the Copernican model also had multiple inadequacies that later filled in by astronomers who participated in the revolution. Nonetheless, despite problems with the model and the persecution of the Church, the heliocentric model was soon accepted by other scientists of the time, most profoundly by Galileo Galilei. The contribution of the Copernican Revolution is far-reaching. It served as a catalyst to sway scientific thinking away from age-long views about the position of the Earth relative to an enlightened understanding of the universe. This marked the beginning of modern astronomy. Although very slowly, the heliocentric model eventually caught on among other astronomers who further rened the model and contributed to the recognition of heliocentrism. This was capped off by Isaac Newton's work a century later. Thus, the Copernican Revolution marked a turning point in the study of cosmology and astronomy making it a truly important intellectual revolution. Darwinian Revolution The English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, Charles Darwin, is credited for stirring another important intellectual revolution in the mid-19111 century. His treatise on the science of revolution, On the Origin of Species, was published in 1859 and began a revolution that brought humanity to a new era of intellectual discovery. The Darwinian Revolution benetted from earlier intellectual revolutions especially those in the 16th and 17'll centuries, such that it was guided by conference in human reason's ability to explain phenomena in the universe. For his part, Darwin gathered evidence pointing to what is now known as natural selection, an evolutionary process by which * organisms, including humans, inherit, develop, and adapt traits that favored survival and reproduction. These traits are manifested in offspring that are more t and well-suited to the challenges of survival and reproduction. l. Geoaplza mriroalrls 2. Quentin fouls 3. Geoeplze pamla 4. Cenhlclee clhlecee Flnches tom Galapagos Archipelago Figure 23: The beak of an ancestral species of Finches found In the Galapagos had evolved to be able to survlve In acquiring dlerentfood sources. Darwin's theory of evolution was, of course, met with resistance and considered to be controversial. Critics accused the theory of being either short in accounting for the broad and complex evolutionary process or dismissive of the idea that the functional design of organisms was a manifestation of an omniscient God. The Darwinian Revolution can be likened to the Copernican Revolution in its demonstration of the power of the laws nature in explaining biological phenomena of survival and reproduction. The place of the Darwinian Revolution in modern science cannot be underestimated. Through the Darwinian Revolution, the development of organisms and the origin of unique forms of life and humanity could be rationalized by a lawful system or any orderly process of change underpinned by laws of nature. Freudian Revolution Australian neurologist, Sigmund Freud, is credited for stirring a 20th-century intellectual revolution named after him, the Freudian Revolution. Psychoanalysis as a school of thought in psychology is at the center of this revolution. Freud developed psychoanalysis-"a scientic method of understanding inner and unconscious conicts embedded within one's personality, springing from free associations, dreams, and fantasies of the individual. Psychoanalysis immediately shot into controversy for it emphasized the existence of the unconscious where feelings, thoughts, argues, emotions, and memories are contained outside of one's consciousness mind. Psychoanalytic concepts of psychosexual development, libido, and ego were met with both support and \" resistance from many scholars. Freud suggested that humans are inherently pleasure- seeking individuals. These notions were particularly caught in the crossre of whether Freud's psychoanalysis t in the scientic study of the brain and mind. Scientists working on a biological approach in studying human behavior criticized psychoanalysis for lack of vitality and bordering on being unscientic as a theory. Particularly, the notion that all humans are destined to exhibit Oedipus and Electra complexes (i.e., sexual desire towards the parent of the opposite sex and exclusion of the parent of the same sex) did not seem to be supported by empirical data. In the same vein, it appeared to critics that psychoanalysis, then, was more of an ideological stance than a scientic one. Amidst controversy, Freud's psychoanalysis is widely credited for dominating psychotherapeutic practice in the early 20th century. Psychodynamic therapies that treat a myriad of psychological disorders still remain largely informed by Freud's work on psychoanalysis