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Why Does Gender Matter? Counteracting Stereotypes With Young Children Stereotypes abound in any society. One way that people in diverse societies try to tolerate differences is to make generalizations that categorize individuals into groups (Keefe, Marshall, & Robeson, 2003). Some of these stereotypes are negative, while others are positive. All stereotypes contribute to a culture of prejudice, which is communicated in word and action to families, communities, and even young children (Derman-Sparks, 2001). The early gender bias experiences that children encounter can shape their attitudes and beliefs related to their development of interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships, access to education equality, participation in the corporate work world, as well as stifling their physical and psychological well being (Hendrix & Wei, 2009). For early childhood educators, being aware of the effects of gender stereotypes is particularly critical, because concepts of gender identity are sometimes placed on children even before their birth, with the selection of paint colors for the nursery, for example. Children begin to form concepts of gender beginning around age 2, and most children know if they are a boy or girl by the age of 3 (Martin & Ruble, 2004). Between the ages of 3 and 5 years, children develop their gender identity and begin to understand what it means to be male or female. Almost immediately after becoming gender aware, children begin developing stereotypes, which they apply to themselves and others, in an attempt to give meaning to and gain understanding about their own identity. These stereotypes are fairly well developed by 5 years of age, and become rigidly defined between 5 and 7 years of age (Martin & Ruble, 2004), making the preschool years a critical period to deal with gender stereotypes. Stereotypes and sexism limit potential growth and development (Narahara, 1998) because internalizing negative stereotypes impacts self-esteem and ultimately, academic performance. Long-term gender bias effects become most apparent in students during adolescence (Carlson, Egeland, & Sroufe, 2004). Preschool educators can help children develop a positive sense of their own gender. Teachers who are familiar with the factors that influence gender identity and stereotype development, and who understand the childs active role in gender identity formation, can more effectively counteract and even neutralize gender bias in their classrooms and attempt to prevent the formation of childrens gender stereotypes (Zaman, 2007). Gender Development Theories Kohlberg (as cited in Martin & Ruble, 2004) was one of the first theorists to address gender as a learned, cognitive concept. His thinking was influenced by Piaget, who portrayed children as active learners who use interactions with their environment to construct an understanding of the world around them (Piaget, 1961). Kohlberg believed that childrens cognitive understanding of gender influenced their behavior (Kohlberg, 1981). These early ideas have been supported by research. In one study, children were asked questions about traditional and Olaiya E. Aina and Petronella A. Cameron How do young childrens experiences with gender biases affect their development and opportunities for leading successful lives? What can teachers do to counteract these stereotypes? Despite current applause for gender equality, children seem to be as stereotypically sex-typed as those of yesteryear. Joannie M. Schrof 12 Vol 39, No 3, 2011 Dimensions of Early Childhood non-traditional images of women as portrayed in books. Children as young as 5 were able to use outside knowledge or assumptions to reconcile ideas that conflicted with their world view (Jackson, 2007). They rationalized and used probably statements to explain how they came to their conclusions, with or without the use of stereotypes. This research supports Gender-Schema Theory (Martin & Ruble, 2004), which involves the creation of organized structures of knowledge that influence thinking and behavior. An alternative, but supplemental view of gender development, is that of gender as a social construct. Through imaginative play, children explore and understand gender roles (Chick, Heilman-Houser, & Hunter, 2002). After children can label themselves as a boy or girl, their preferences for gender-typed play activities and materials begins (Freeman, 2007). This demonstrates the link between play and gender identity formation. For Vygotsky (1961), imitation and instruction are vital components to childrens development. Adults promote this learning by role-modeling behavior, assisting with challenging tasks, and passing along cultural meanings to objects and events, all of which are components of gender development. Influences on Gender Identity and Stereotypes Popular culture Gender stereotypes are pervasive in the media and popular culture (Saltmarsh, 2009). Consumer products inundate children with gender-typed messages on bed sheets, towels, bandages, clothes, school supplies, toys, and furniture (Freeman, 2007). Not only are these products marketed for specific genders, but they are merchandised in stores by gender, creating segregated pink and blue aisles for shopping. Media portrayals also reinforce stereotypes. Advertising about computers typically depicted men and boys as competent users, engaged in active or professional roles, while women and girls were passive observers or merely posed next to the computer while looking pretty or provocative (McNair, Kirova-Petrova, & Bhargava, 2001). In several European countries, television advertising to children is restricted or banned (Mitchener, 2001). Movies convey particularly powerful messages about gender roles and stereotyping (Derman-Sparks, 2001). Considering the brand Stereotypes and sexism limit potential growth and development because internalizing negative stereotypes impacts self-esteem and ultimately, academic performance. Subjects & Predicates Why Does Gender Matter? Counteracting Stereotypes With Young Children Dimensions of Early Childhood Vol 39, No 3, 2011 13 strength and saturation of a multimedia company such as Disney, children are particularly susceptible. Researchers examined the influence of Disney images of women and marriage on the perceptions of young Korean immigrant girls. These girls reported a resigned acceptance to the portrayal of princesses having to face external obstacles to marriage, such as family approval or laws, while princes could marry according to their own will (Lee, 2008). These researchers also noted that the girls associated desirability for a princess with one attribute, such as beauty or a singing voice, whereas princes were desired for their courage, chivalry, or actions (Lee, 2008). Combined with a tradition of female subservience in Korean culture, these young girls appeared to accept their disenfranchisement. Early childhood education The role of schools has become more prominent in the lives of children younger than 5 years of age (Sales, Spjeldnes, & Koeshe, 2010). Many children spend up to 10 hours a day in child care (Grafwallner, Fontaine, Torre, & Underhill, 2006). Two main aspects of the early childhood environment influence perceptions of young childrens gender and gender stereotypes: classroom materials and the instruction of teachers (Gee & Gee, 2005). Several gender inequities were found in one preschool, the most obvious being the proliferation of gender-typed toys, such as pink kitchen sets. Further scrutiny revealed a large proportion of books in the library that showed gender bias of some kind (Chick, HeilmanHouser, & Hunter, 2002). The classroom environment can affect not only how young children understand important social issues, such as those of gender, but also what they think about themselves and others. Korean immigrant girls perceived that a woman could not be President of the United States because a classroom poster depicted all male presidents (Lee, 2008). Teachers have tremendous influence on how children develop ideas of gender and gender significance. Traditional caregivers typically reinforced gender- stereotyped traits when they praised girls for their clothing, hairstyles, neatness, and helping behaviors, and in contrast praised boys for their strength, physical skill, size, and academic accomplishments (Chick, Heilman-Houser & Hunter, 2002). These teachers used honey and sweetie to address girls, but said you guys when speaking to the entire class (Chick, Heilman-Houser & Hunter, 2002). While unintentional, a teachers inherent biases can perpetuate unfair stereotypes and may be manifested in discriminatory classroom practices. For example, one group of teachers perceived girls as passive learners and therefore more teachable than boys (Erden & Wolfgang, 2004). Similarly, classroom management techniques may reward obedience versus assertiveness, which puts highly active children at a disadvantage. A teachers stereotypes may lead to interactions with children that are neither gender-fair nor gender-congruent (Hyun, 2001). Males demand and receive more attention from their teachers and therefore receive more specific, instructive feedback from teachers (Erden & Wolfgang, 2004). In comparison, females become less demanding of the teachers attention; that results in lower levels of achievement and self-esteem, which therefore limits their career goals to more traditional, nurturing, and often lower-paying careers. Males do not escape the gender bias, however, as they are subject to conforming to male stereotypes and experience less nurturing behavior (Zaman, 2007). Every day, teaching may occur in curriculum areas where positive or negative stereotypes can affect childrens concepts of self-competence (Ebach, et al., 2009). One study found that 80% of the observed teachers discouraged preschool girls from using computers by their words and attitudes (McNair, Kirova-Petrova, & Bhargava, 2001). This stereotyping may contribute to young girls inabilities to become competent users of technology. Friends Children also have been shown to actively create gender identities through interactions with each other (Thorne, 1993). Friendship patterns and peer pressure contribute to gender stereotypes, especially among boys, who have the tendency to self-police peers, ridiculing those who show feminine traits (Morrow, 2006). Childrens gender-typed toy preferences are more likely to be exhibited when in the proximity of peers who approve of the gendertyped choices (Hughes, 2003). Family In addition to role modeling, families influence gender learning

when they reinforce or discourage specific behaviors, particularly in play. Leaper (2000) found that Mothers were more likely than fathers to encourage collaborative play with both sons and daughters. Mothers favored affiliative play with daughters, that is, they encouraged interactions that were warm, supportive, and responsive. Fathers were more likely than mothers to react negatively to cross-gender behavior, especially with sons. Teachers can communicate with families and children about their experiences, thoughts, and behaviors and provide resources in the community and schools to assist them in developing healthy gender attitudes (Spjeldnes, Koeshe, & Sales, 2010). Storytelling is another way that families influence how children learn about gender. Storytelling can familiarize children with valued traits and personal characteristics. Fiese and Skillman (2000) reported several storytelling patterns that can lead children to develop gender-typed traits and values: Sons were more likely to be told stories of autonomy and achievement. Daughters were more likely to be told stories of relationships or support. Fathers more often told stories of mastery and success. Mothers stories were usually a direct expression of emotion. Family culture and ethnicity also influences childrens perceptions of gender. The cultural biases of different ethnic groups may expose children to more deeply ingrained stereotypes than exist in the mainstream culture (Robeson, Marshall, & Keefe, 1999). For example, the Asian cultural emphasis on the value of sons can be communicated in subtle or not-so-subtle ways that influence daughters self-concepts of value and worth as girls (Morrow, 2006). Childrens literature Books have a tremendous influence on young children (Narahara, 1998). The main characters provide role models and definitions of masculinity and femininity for children. Because children are active and critical readers, books and their illustrations become a cultural resource for children to learn social norms (Jackson, 2007). In a study of Newberry and Caldecott award-winning books, male protagonists outnumbered female ones three to one, and 21 out of 25 books contained images of women wearing aprons (Narahara, 1998). These books also contained no Latino or African American main characters. Narahara indicated that it could be assumed that children will Subjects & Predicates Communicate with families and children about their experiences, thoughts, and behaviors. Provide resources in the community to assist families to develop healthy gender attitudes. Why Does Gender Matter? Counteracting Stereotypes With Young Children Dimensions of Early Childhood Vol 39, No 3, 2011 15 undervalue the importance of their lives if they are unable to identify with characters in books. Images or characters in books can create positive or negative emotions in young children, and when children understand their peers cultural traditions that are more likely to form a more positive perspective of themselves and others (Nahl & Bilal, 2007). Consequences of Gender Stereotyping Activity Choice Young children often reveal their gender stereotyping in their play. During dramatic play, preschool females are more likely to choose family roles, while males are more likely to choose adventure or actionoriented roles, such as superheroes (Hughes, 2003). In another study, before intervention, males spent 25% of their time in block play versus 2% in housekeeping areas (Unger, 1981). Females, however, spent 10% of their time in housekeeping and only 2% in the block area. By combining the spaces and creating a gender-neutral play area, the researchers observed an 8% increase in housekeeping play by the boys and a 9% increase in block play by the girls. As noted earlier, children apply gender stereotypes to toys by the time they are 3 (Freeman, 2007). In a study conducted with mothers and fathers of 3- to 5-year-old children, childrens perceptions of parental approval were found out of alignment with the parents selfdescribed attitudes. Parents demonstrated markedly non-stereotyped attitudes on parent questionnaires about how they would react to their childrens cross-gender play.