\fOverview The US. military is not only a traditionally male dominated organization, but a Key institution by which masculinity has been defined (Goldstein, 2001; Higate, 2003). it was in fact, an exclusively male domain until the First World War. Even after the Second World War and as recently as 197'3, women were allowed only limited participation. What followed was a slow progression of expanding opportunity. Yet, even now, the military continues to be overwhelmingly male. The expansion of women's roles has come in response to personnel needs, changing social norms, and proven performance on and off the battlefield. Entrenched cultural biases, male ambivalence towards sexual harassment and assault, and lack of female access to high prestige and high profile combat assignments continue to inhibit further progress towards equality. I neories on the H0Ie ot Gender In Organizations 225 Tremendous progress has been made both for and by women in U.S. society over the past century (Jackson, 1998}. Nonetheless, women continue to lack equal representation status in social, economic and political positions, as well as receiving less than 80% oi male pay (Ridgeway, 201 1}. Reconciling these contradictory forces is a key challenge for gender theorists today. Diverse theories seekto explain why these conflicting experiences continue to be prevalent. It is argued that \"legalrational" organizations will remove inefficient discrimination (Jackson, 1998} or that organizations themselves are inherently gendered (Acker, 1999). Additionally, mechanisms inhibiting women's further progress are theorized to be labor market segregation Reskin, 1991; 1993; Reskin and Roos, 198?}, "tokenism" [MossKantor, 19W}, role enactment (West and Zimmer, 198?}, sexual harassment and assault (McKinnon, 1979 1989} \"hegemonic masculinity" iConnell, 1987} and other deeply embedded and socially constructed aspects of our society {Lorben 1994}. While these arguments have salience, and there is ample evidence both for (Jackson, 1998) and against (Lorber, 1994} historyis march towards gender equality, it is likely that these mechanisms are present simultaneously. From that perspective, institutions and other modernizing forces enhance the prospects of greater gender equality while multigenerational patterns oi gender framing act as a break against full equality iFiidgeway, 201 1}. Mechanisms for Inclusion 229 Institutional and normative changes in society at large were the most important factors for change. The Equal Pay Act oi 1963 and Title VII of the Civil Flights Act of 1964 made it illegal to discriminate against women on the basis oi gender. Title IX of the Education Amendments Act oi 1972 required equal access to education and athletics. Today, women receive the majority of degrees at all levels of education and they participate in the workforce and in sports at roughly the same levels as men. In 201 2 for example, more female athletes represented the US. at the London Olympics where they also won more medals than their male counterparts. These changes have been essential to iemale participation in military organizations that require rigorous mental and physical abilities. The end oi the draft also played a Key role for women in the military (Sandhotf, Segal, and Segal, 2010; Shilts, 2005}. Ely August 1978 within six months of the end oi conscription, the Army was 19%, and the Marine Corps 17%, short oi personnel. This persisted until the Army doubled the number of women in uniform and increased eligible occupations irom 189 to 436, out oi a possible 484. The Air Force doubled the number ofjobs available to women, opening up all but five of its 282 occupations. The Navy opened pilot training and the Chief oi Naval Operations announced plans to allow women on ships. Altogether, 81 % of occupations across all services were made available to women. Women's enlistment in the Air Force increased from 7,000 to 17,000 between 1968 and 1978, while other branches saw similar gains. By November 1 97'3, the military was meeting its enlistment goals for the first time, with women accounting for 0% of entrants and 20% of incoming Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) Cadets (Shiite: 2005}. The Women's Army Corps (WAC) grew from 12260 to 52,900 members from 1972 to 1978: when it was merged into the Army that yearfMonahan and NeidelGreenlee, 2010). Another key event was the first Gulf War, demonstrating the effectiveness of large scale integration of women in the military. More than 40,000 women were deployed to the Persian Gulf. in 1993: Secretary of Defense Les Aspin directed all services to open combat aviation positions to women. The next yearthe Department of Defense ordered occupations directly supporting ground combat units opened up to women, making another 32,000 Army and 48,000 Marine Corps jobs available. That same year, Congress repealed the law barring women from surface combat ships in the Navy (Monahan and NeidelGreenlee, 2010}. Women again demonstrated their capabilities in lrag and Afghanistan. More than 280,000 women participated in these wars by the beginning of 201 1: suffering at least 1 50 fatalities and 800 injuries (Collins, 2018}. Retired Lieutenant Colonel John A. Nagl stated: \"We literally could not have fought this war (Iraq and Afghanistan} without women\" and retired 0.8. Army Colonel Peter R. Monsoor added, \"lraq has advanced the cause of full integration of women in the Army by leaps and bounds. They have earned the confidence and respect of their male colleagues.\" (Alvarez, 2009). Conclusion There is no denying the substantial progress made both for and by women in the military. Both quantity and quality oi participation have improved substantially since the early 19T0's. Individual women have earned all ranks, and serve in a greater range of jobs, including nearly all Navy and Air Force platforms. They have substantially increased their de facto participation in combat in Iraq, Afghanistan, and other conflicts. To a great extent, this progress is a result of changing social norms and institutional mechanisms in societythat have enhanced opportunities for women. Improved access to sports and education, where women now earn more degrees at all levels than men, have been instrumental in this regard. The proven track record oi women in the military, including wars in the Middle East and Aighanistan, has opened up more opportunities. Finally, the decision by Congress to end "Don't Ask, Don't Tell," has removed an important social and legal barriertor gay women