GENERAL INFORMATION: The models of abnormality help us understand the whys of mental illness - why do people experience symptoms of anxiety, depression, and addiction? Please take the time to digest in depth the four evidence-based models presented in your text and the Powerpoint slides. Here is a short summary/guide for your review.

Keep in mind: No one model provides an explanation for all types of abnormal behavior. Most (but not all) types of abnormal behavior are a result of the influence of multiple models of abnormality. It is unusual for the cause of a given individual's abnormal behavior to be precisely identified. Most of the time, contributing factors are hypothesized but cannot be definitively proven.

Biological Model: The biological model suggests that biological factors, such as genetics, brain structure differences, and neurotransmitter imbalances, are the drivers of abnormal behavior. To identify this model in action, a clinician might look for factors such as family history of a disorder (genetic cause), evidence of trauma to the brain (change in brain anatomy), or evidence of related neurological issues that would result from a change to the brain structure. A biological cause for abnormality might be supported if psychotropic medications are prescribed and successfully reduce the individual's symptoms. Some disorders are known to have strong biological causes, such as Alzheimer's Disease, thus no specific case evidence may be needed to ascribe the model to the case.

Behavioral Model: The behavioral model purports that abnormal behavior arises from learning due to classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. To identify classical conditioning in action, a clinician might look for a history of a neutral and aversive stimulus being paired together (e.g., a loud sound and the danger of getting shot) such that the neutral stimulus unconsciously produces the response that would be natural for the aversive stimulus (e.g., becoming very afraid/hiding when hearing a loud sound like a door slamming). To identify operant conditioning in action, a clinician might look for instances of reinforcement (rewards that encourage a behavior) and/or punishment (consequences that discourage a behavior) from the individual's environment. For example, bullying in school may serve as a punishment that discourages school attendance and causes social anxiety. Lastly, social modeling may be occurring when an individual models their own behavior from others' behavior, and when they witness others experiencing rewards/consequences as a result of their actions. For example a child may become afraid of spiders after watching his mother jump back in fear (modeling), or after watching his brother get a nasty spider bite (witnessing someone else being punished).

Cognitive Model: The cognitive model suggests that inaccurate and unhelpful patterns of thinking, or cognitive distortions, cause abnormal behavior. Cognitive distortions are erroneous and/or unhelpful interpretations of events, assumptions about the world, and/or beliefs about the self. For example, a person who thinks "I'm too fat for anyone to date me. I'm going to die miserable and alone." may go on to develop more severe symptoms of depression or an eating disorder. A

clinician might identify these thoughts through conversation with the individual or through thought logging.

Socio-Cultural Model: The socio-cultural model suggests that features of an individual's social or cultural context can contribute to abnormal behavior. This model attempts to explain systematic differences in the frequency and expression of abnormal behavior across social/identity groups. For example, women are more likely to experience depression than men within a wide variety of cultural contexts, potentially because of differences in gender role expectations (e.g., women are socialized to care for others rather than themselves, women are often tasked with the majority of child-rearing and household responsibilities, as well as participating in out of home employment). As another example, South Korea has the highest suicide rate in the world, possibly because of high levels of pressure to achieve academically (suicide rates spike around college entrance exam times), stigma around mental health issues, and the notion of "saving-face" in response to failure by committing suicide.

YOUR TASK: Read the case below and provide short answers. Responses may be typed directly into this document, and then uploaded onto Blackboard.

Jack is a 92-year old man residing in an assisted living community. During the past year, Jack has been experiencing symptoms of depression, including low mood, decreased interest in previously pleasurable activities, hyposomnia, and decreased appetite. Last summer, Jack's wife of 65 years, Judith, recently passed away of pneumonia. Although Judith had suffered from dementia and had been non-responsive for 15 years, Jack had organized his days around visiting her in the dementia wing of the assisted living community. He had read books to her, painted next to her, and told her stories about their life together. Since Judith's death, Jack has felt unmoored and listless. Like many people of his age, Jack's health has been steadily deteriorating. He uses a wheelchair due to debilitating knee pain, can't sleep past 4 or 5 AM, and must avoid his favorite foods to reduce his sodium intake and protect his kidneys. Jack's mood particularly worsened after he transitioned from a walker to a wheelchair 6 months ago, as he believes it emasculates him. Jack has commented to nurses that he feels "no better than a damn child in a stroller." Jack has strong bonds with his two children that live in the area, and keeps in regular contact with his adult grandchildren. Jack enjoys their company, but feels he has become a "useless burden" to those he loves. He often expresses dismay at his fall from the patriarchal head of the family to "a sad old man who can't even go for a walk in the park."

Provide any evidence for a biological explanation of Jack's depressive symptoms (low mood, decreased interest in previously pleasurable activities, hyposomnia, and decreased appetite). Ask yourself:

Is there evidence that Jack has genetic factors contributing to his illness (such as

family members with the same symptoms)?

Is there anything happening with Jack's physical body/health that could explain his symptoms?

Provide any evidence for a behavioral explanation of Jack's symptoms. Ask yourself:

Classical Conditioning: Is Jack experiencing two stimuli being paired together repeatedly until one or more stimuli is eliciting depressive symptoms?

Operant Conditioning: Is there a pattern of rewards or punishments in Jack's life that is contributing to his depressive symptoms? For example, is he experiencing too few positive moments (rewards) or too many negative moments (punishments) that may be impacting his mood? Has there been a change to his normal pattern of rewarding/punishing experiences?

Social Learning: Is Jack learning to have depressive symptoms by watching or hearing about someone else's experience of depression?

Provide any evidence for a cognitive explanation of Jack's symptoms. Ask yourself:

Is Jack having unrealistic or unhelpful thoughts about his life? What are they?

Are Jack's unrealistic or unhelpful thoughts making his depressive symptoms worse specifically? How so?

Provide any evidence for a socio-cultural explanation of Jack's symptoms. Ask yourself:

Does Jack have a social role that is creating a mental health vulnerability for him?

Are cultural stereotypes or norms around one or more of Jack's cultural identities causing him distress?