${?}_{{?}_{{?}_{?}}{?}_{i}s\text{c}\text{o}\text{n}\text{c}\text{e}\text{r}\text{n}\text{e}\text{d}\text{w}\text{i}\text{t}\text{h}\text{i}\text{d}\text{e}\text{n}\text{t}\text{i}\text{f}\text{y}\text{i}\text{n}\text{g}\text{t}\text{h}\text{e}\text{r}\text{o}\text{o}\text{t}\text{c}\text{a}\text{u}\text{s}\text{e}\text{s}of\text{a}\text{c}\text{t}\text{i}\text{v}\text{i}\text{t}\text{y}costs.}$

$a.$ Direct analysis

$b.$ Activity analysis

$c.$ Driver analysis

$d.$ Causal analysis

$e.$ None $of$ these.