In the case Palsgraf v. The Long Island Railroad, 248 N.Y. 339, 162 N.E. 99, 1928 N.Y. Lexis 1269 (N.Y.), Justice Cardoza denied recovery for the plaintiff. Justice Cardoza found that the railroad was not the proximate cause of Helen Palsgraf's injuries. The concept of proximate cause is one that is less than precise.

In today's world of business, can we be sure that the reasoning used by Cardoza still applies? Has a new standard developed? In reviewing the materials in the textbook, you should be able to discuss the issue of causation in a meaningful and dispassionate manner.