In the context of the cultural differences among nations, identify a difference between the U.S. work culture and the Japanese work culture.

a. Japanese managers are about in the middle on a continuum of autocratic to democratic decision-making styles, whereas American managers are at the most participatory end.

b. In the United States, cooperation is the underlying philosophy, whereas in Japan, competition is the underlying philosophy.

c. In Japanese companies, layoff decisions are increasingly being made on seniority, whereas in American companies, layoff decisions are increasingly being made on merit.

d. In the United States, employees are likely to feel little loyalty to their organizations, whereas in Japan, employees are likely to feel strong loyalty to their organizations.