In the early 2000s, Volkswagen marketed their diesel-powered automobiles as fuel efficient and environmentally friendly. Only a few company executives and engineers knew that these vehicles used engine-control software designed to perform well during emissions testing on laboratory treadmills. The software disabled the emission control features when the cars were driven on roads. When millions of cars were recalled, Volkswagen engineers claimed that they were following executives' orders. This scenario exemplifies which justification method? a) denial of responsibility b) denial of injury c) social cocoon d) appeal to higher loyalties