Income from operations is one of the most important items reported by a company. Depending on the decision-making needs of management, income from operations can be determined using absorption costing or variable costing.

Choose whether the following characteristics are most often associated with absorption costing or variable costing.

	Absorption Costing	Variable Costing
Required under generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP)
Often used for internal use in decision making
Cost of goods manufactured includes only variable manufacturing costs
Used in reports prepared for external users
Fixed factory overhead costs are not part of cost of goods manufactured
Both fixed and variable factory costs are included in cost of goods sold and inventory

Review the income statements on the Absorption Statement and Variable Statement panels, then complete the following table. The companys sales price per unit is $75.00, and the number of units in ending inventory is 5,000.

Item	Amount
Number of units sold
Variable sales and administrative cost per unit
Number of units manufactured
Variable cost of goods manufactured per unit
Fixed manufacturing cost per unit

Absorption costing does not distinguish between variable and fixed costs. All manufacturing costs are included in the cost of goods sold.

Saxon, Inc.

Absorption Costing Income Statement

For the Year Ended December 31

1	Sales		$1,125,000.00
2	Cost of goods sold:
3	Beginning inventory	$0.00
4	Cost of goods manufactured	800,000.00
5	Ending inventory	(200,000.00)
6	Total cost of goods sold		600,000.00
7	Gross profit		$525,000.00
8	Selling and administrative expenses		260,000.00
9	Income from operations		$265,000.00

Under variable costing, the cost of goods manufactured includes only variable manufacturing costs. This type of income statement includes a computation of manufacturing margin.

Saxon, Inc.

Variable Costing Income Statement

For the Year Ended December 31

1	Sales		$1,125,000.00
2	Variable cost of goods sold:
3	Beginning inventory	$0.00
4	Variable cost of goods manufactured	560,000.00
5	Ending inventory	(140,000.00)
6	Total variable cost of goods sold		420,000.00
7	Manufacturing margin		$705,000.00
8	Variable selling and administrative expenses		195,000.00
9	Contribution margin		$510,000.00
10	Fixed costs:
11	Fixed manufacturing costs	$240,000.00
12	Fixed selling and administrative expenses	65,000.00
13	Total fixed costs		305,000.00
14	Income from operations		$205,000.0

Whenever the units manufactured differ from the units sold, finished goods inventory is affected. In analyzing income from operations, such increases and decreases could be misinterpreted as operating efficiencies or inefficiencies. Each decision-making situation should be carefully analyzed in deciding whether absorption or variable costing reporting would be more useful.

All costs are controllable in the long run by someone within a business. For a given level of management, costs may be controllable costs or noncontrollable costs.

The production manager for Saxon, Inc. is worried because the company is not showing a high enough profit. Looking at the income statements on the Absorption Statement panel and the Variable Statement panel, he notices that the income from operations is higher on the absorption cost income statement. He is considering manufacturing another 10,000 units, up to the companys capacity for manufacturing, in the coming year. He reasons that this will boost income from operations and satisfy the companys owner that the company is sufficiently profitable. Although the total units manufactured changes, assume that total fixed costs, unit variable costs, unit sales price, and the sales levels are the same. Complete questions (1)-(4) that follow. If the answer is zero, enter "0".

1. Use the income statements on the Absorption Statement and Variable Statement panels to complete the following table for the original production level. Then prepare similar income statements at a production level 10,000 units higher and add that information to the table. Assume that total fixed costs, unit variable costs, unit sales price, and the sales levels are the same at both production levels.

Income From Operations
Original	Original	Additional	Additional
Production	Production	10,000	10,000
Level-Absorption	Level-Variable	Units-Absorption	Units-Variable

2. What is the change in income from operations from producing 10,000 additional units under absorption costing?

3. What is the change in income from operations from producing 10,000 additional units under variable costing?

4. What would be your recommendation to the production manager?

Produce the extra 10,000 units. Income from operations will be increased, and the production manager will receive praise for creating higher profits.

Do not produce the extra 10,000 units. The increase in income from operations under absorption costing is due to fixed manufacturing costs being held in inventory, and the additional inventory will lead to higher handling, storage, financing, and obsolescence costs.

Do not produce the extra 10,000 units. Income from operations does not change under absorption costing when the additional units are produced.

Produce the extra 10,000 units. It's always a good idea to have extra units on hand and keep the factory operating at capacity, even if all the units are not sold.

For planning and control purposes, managers often compare planned and actual contribution margin. Variable costing is used as a basis for such analyses.

Examine the following contribution margin data, and then complete the Contribution Margin Analysis panel.

Saxon, Inc.
Contribution Margin Data Schedule
	Actual	Planned
Sales	$1,125,000	$1,190,000
Variable cost of goods sold	$420,000	$462,000
Variable selling and administrative expenses	195,000	154,000
Total	$615,000	$616,000
Contribution margin	$510,000	$574,000
Number of units sold	15,000	14,000
Per unit:
Sales price	$75.00	$85.00
Variable cost of goods sold	28.00	33.00
Variable selling and administrative expenses	13.00	11.00

Contribution margin analysis focuses on explaining the differences between planned and actual contribution margins, considering the quantity factor and the unit price factor.

After reviewing the data on the Contribution Margin Data panel, complete the following contribution margin analysis. For those boxes in which you must enter subtracted or negative numbers use a minus sign.

Saxon, Inc.

Contribution Margin Analysis

For the Year Ended December 31

1	Planned contribution margin
2	Effect of changes in sales:
3	Sales quantity factor
4	Unit price factor
5	Total effect of changes in sales
6	Effect of changes in variable cost of goods sold:
7	Variable cost quantity factor
8	Unit cost factor
9	Total effect of changes in variable cost of goods sold
10	Effect of changes in selling and administrative expenses:
11	Variable cost quantity factor
12	Unit cost factor
13	Total effect of changes in selling and administrative expenses
14	Actual contribution margin

After reviewing your work on the Contribution Margin Analysis panel, answer the following three questions.

1. Explain the total effect of changes in sales on the contribution margin.

Actual total units sold was lower than planned, causing a decrease in contribution margin.

The reduction in sales price caused higher sales, but contribution margin was nevertheless negative overall.

The reduction in sales price lowered contribution margin, but the increased quantity of sales more than made up for it.

Lowering the sales price caused sales to be lower, decreasing overall contribution margin.

2. Explain the total effect of changes in variable cost of goods sold.

Variable cost of goods sold negatively affected contribution margin because of an increase in per unit costs.

The reduction in per unit variable cost of goods sold negatively affected contribution margin, but the increased sales overcame this effect.

More units were sold and so the variable cost of goods sold was higher, even though the per unit variable cost of goods sold was less than planned.

Overall, the effect of changes in variable cost of goods sold increased contribution margin.

3. Explain the total effect of changes in selling and administrative expenses.

Due to increased sales there was an increased contribution margin due to increased selling and administrative expenses.

The per unit variable selling and administrative expense was higher than planned, and more units were sold, yielding a negative effect on contribution margin.

Because the per unit variable selling and administrative expenses increased, contribution margin was greater.

Contribution margin went up because of a decrease in selling and administrative expenses.