Initial Growth The first Wendy's restaurant opened in Columbus, Ohio, in November 1969. The second Wendy's opened in 1970, restaurants three and four opened in 1971, and restaurants five, six, and seven opened in 1972. In addition to these seven company-operated stores, two franchised restaurants were opened in 1972. As shown in Table 1, a substantial increase occurred in the number of Wendy's restaurants opened between 1973 and 1978, the majority of which were franchised units. Table 1. Number of Wendy's restaurants in operation, 1973-78. 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 Company restaurants 17 46 93 174 231 288 Franchised restaurants 15 47 159 346 674 1,119 Total restaurants 32 93 252 520 905 1,407 Data sources: Wendy's annual reports, 1973-78. Both company and franchised restaurants were built to company specifications as to exterior style and interior decor. Most were freestanding, one-story brick buildings, substantially uniform in design and appearance, and constructed on approximately 35,000-square-foot sites with parking for 35 to 40 cars. Freestanding restaurants contained about 2,400 square feet and included a cooking and food preparation area, a dining room designed to seat 92 customers, and a pick-up window to serve drive-thru customers. Wendy's restaurants were usually located in urban or densely populated suburban areas, and their success depended upon serving a large volume of customers. As of December 31, 1978, the 288 company restaurants were located in 18 multi-county areas in and around the cities listed in Table 2. Table 2. Company restaurants, December 31, 1978. Columbus, OH 32 Detroit, MI 11 Cincinnati, OH 19 Oklahoma City, OK 10 Dayton, OH 24 Tulsa, OK 10 Toledo, OH 10 Memphis, TN 11 Atlanta, GA 28 Louisville, KY 12 Indianapolis, IN 12 Syracuse, NY 8 Fort Worth, TX West Virginia 32 Houston, TX 18 Tampa, Sarasota, St. Petersburg, and 20 Clearwater, FL Dallas, TX 11 Jacksonville, FL 11 Note: At this time, there were no franchised restaurants located in any of the market areas served by company restaurants. Data source: Wendy's annual report, 1978. Company Revenues Wendy's initial revenues came from four principal sources. As shown in Table 3, these were sales made by company restaurants, royalties paid by franchise owners (franchisees), technical assistance fees paid by franchise owners, and interest earned on investments. The increase in the percentage of total revenues that resulted from royalties during the five-year period covered by Table 3 was primarily caused by the substantial increase that occurred in the number of franchised restaurants relative to the number of company restaurants.Table 3. Percentage revenue composition, 1974-78. Year Ended December 31 1974 1975 1976 1977 978 Revenues: Company restaurants 94.21% 93.37% 90.16% 87.10% 84.13% Royalties 3.33 4.26 6.40 9.50 12.65 Technical assistance fees 1.53 1.70 2.16 2.04 1.87 Interest, other income w M 1.28 E E 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% Data sources: Wendy's annual reports, 1974779. Revenue from sales made by company restaurants was recognized as soon after the sales occurred as was practicable. Because the amount of each company restaurant's daily net sales was to be reported to corporate headquarters in Dublin, Ohio, by 8:00 a.m. the next day, they were generally recorded by the corporate accounting staff the day after the sales were made. Wendy's franchise agreements stipulated that every franchisee had to pay to Wendy's International, Inc., a technical assistance fee for each restaurant the franchisee agreed to build within the franchised area.1 The due date for payment of the technical assistance fee (sometimes referred to as a franchise fee) was negotiated with each franchisee. The earliest due date was at the time the franchise agreement was signed; the latest was 30 days prior to the opening of each restaurant. According to Wendy's management, the technical assistance fees did not contribute substantially to company prots inasmuch as they were generally fully expended on providing a variety of services to franchise owners prior to the opening of each restaurant. These services included site selection assistance, standard construction plans and specications, initial training for franchise owners and restaurant managers, advertising materials and assistance, national purchasing agreements, and operations manuals. Technical assistance fees received any time prior to the opening of the related franchised restaurants were recorded by the company as \"deferred technical assistance fees.\" Technical assistance fees were recognized as revenue at the time the franchised restaurants commenced operations. Once a franchised restaurant was opened, franchise owners had to pay Wendy's International, Inc., a royalty of 4% of gross sales. In connection therewith, franchisees were required to submit to the company weekly sales reports (due the following Monday) for each restaurant. Payment of the royalty was made on a monthly basis and was due, along with a monthly sales report, by the 15th of the following month. Royalties were recognized on an accrual basis at the end of each month based on the weekly sales reported by franchisees. If necessary, these monthly accruals were adjusted at the time the royalty payments were received from franchisees. 1 Unlike most other quick-service restaurant chains, Wendy's originally granted franchises for geographic areas (i.e., one or more counties) rather than for individual restaurants. Wendy's did not select or employ any personnel for franchisees, nor did the company sell fixtures, food, or supplies of any kind to franchisees. Also, unlike many other restaurant chains, Wendy's did not derive revenue from owning the franchised units and leasing them to franchisees. All Wendy's franchise owners either owned their franchised restaurants or leased them from independent third parties. Interest and other income represented the amounts earned on investments, principally certificates of deposit, bankers' acceptances, and commercial paper. These amounts were recognized by the company on an accrual basis as earned. Chili and the Wendy's Way Wendy's was founded on the belief that the combination of product differentiation, market segmentation, quality food, quick service, and reasonable prices would produce a successful company. This combination was often referred to by Dave Thomas as the \"Wendy's Way.\" The decision to include chili as one of the original menu items was made after careful consideration of the most desirable product mix in keeping with the Wendy's Way. The first and most important of Wendy's products was, of course, the \"old-fashioned\" hamburger. French fries were the second item included on the menu, primarily because so many customers ate French fries with their hamburgers. It was at this point that a product decision needed to be made that would enhance the successful implementation of the Wendy's Way. Wendy's management knew that the only way the restaurants could serve old-fashioned hamburgers directly from the grill in accordance with individual customer orders, and still be able to serve them quickly, was for the cooks to anticipate customer demand and have a sufficient supply of hamburgers already cooking when the customers arrived at the restaurants. The problem with such an approach, however, was what to do with the hamburgers that became too well done whenever the cooks overestimated customer demand and cooked too many hamburgers. Throwing them away would be too costly, but serving them as \"hot 'n juicy\" old- fashioned hamburgers would result in considerable customer dissatisfaction. The solution to this dilemma was in finding a product that was unique to the restaurant industry and that required ground beef as one of the major ingredients. Thus, Wendy's \"rich and meaty\" chili became one of the four original menu items. Difculties in the 19805 Wendy's continued its growth in total number of restaurants, revenues, and income throughout the rst half of the 1980s. Responding to competitive pressures and changing customer demands, Wendy's added chicken to its menu through the acquisition of Sisters International, Inc. The company also expanded and improved its Garden Spot salad bar, added stuffed baked potatoes to the menu, and changed its restaurant decor to reect a more upscale environment. As a means of providing more exibility in dealing with franchisees and of facilitating expansion, Wendy's began the use of the single-unit franchise method whereby franchise rights were granted on a restaurant-by-restaurant basis rather than on an area basis as had been the company's previous practice. In 1985, revenues exceeded $1 billion for the first time, and income set a new record at $76.2 million. Notwithstanding this impressive performance, management faced some formidable challenges. The US. economy was softening, and lower discretionary consumer spending served to increase competitive pressures in the quick-service restaurant industry. The company's major competitors had substantially improved the quality of their products, service, and facilities, and they had been aggressively introducing new menu items. The year 1986 turned out to be the worst in the company's history. Total revenues increased less than 2% over the previous year, and the company recorded a $75 million charge for business realignment expense. Consequently, Wendy's reported a loss for the year of approximately $5 million, its rst loss ever. As an example of the competitive nature of the industry, Wendy's made a strategic decision to serve breakfast on a system-wide basis in June 1985. Shortly thereafter, the economy worsened, and Wendy's major competitors introduced new products targeted specifically at Wendy's customers. This created an environment where it was difficult to justify the investment necessary to accomplish a system-wide breakfast offering. Therefore, in March 1986, breakfast became an optional menu item for both company and franchised restaurants. In 1987, Wendy's sold Sisters International, Inc., and began a systematic reduction in the number of company restaurants both inside and outside the United States. The company also continued to expand the availability of its new three-section Super Salad Bar, and by year-end, it was installed at more than 90% of company restaurants and approximately 40% of franchised restaurants. Due to a $15 million income tax benet and a $1 million extraordinary gain on early extinguishment of debt, Wendy's reported income of $4.5 million in 1987. Optimism in the 1990s As Wendy's entered the 1990s, there were indications that the company was about to regain the momentum it had lost during the latter part of the previous decade. Company restaurant operating profit margins, return on average assets, and return on average equity had all begun to improve, and most of the unprofitable company restaurants had been closed. Wendy's was ready to begin a program of prudent, aggressive growth both domestically and internationally. One of the interesting debates that occurred from time to time during the \"realignment period\" of the late 1980s and early 1990s had to do with the role of the company's original menu items in light of the introduction of what became known as Wendy's \"balanced product and marketing approach.\" This approach had been introduced to enable the company to respond in a timely manner to ever-changing customer trends with respect to menu composition and pricing. Although Wendy's had abandoned its original \"limited menu\" concept during the late 1970s, the four original menu items continued to be sold as part of a group of product offerings that management referred to as the core menu. As a guide for the 1990s, management identied six specic operating objectives, which then became known as \"the keys to success.\" Key #1 was to grow the total number of Wendy's restaurants, with a goal of 5,000 by 1995. Key #2 was to generate consistent real sales growth (e.g., without price increases) from quarter to quarter. Key #3 was to continue to improve restaurant operating margins. Key #4 was to manage corporate overhead expenses prudently. Key #5 was to enhance return on assets. And Key #6 was to continue to strengthen the entire restaurant system through the selective sale of company units to strong existing or new franchisees, while acquiring units in need of attention from existing franchisees. In addition to Wendy's new operating objectives, the company continued to experiment with new menu items throughout the 1990s. In March 1992, the company began offering ve fresh salads to go. In addition, the company introduced a spicy chicken sandwich, and it then added a five-piece chicken nugget item to its 99-cent Super Value menu. Management's hard work paid off, and the company added almost 2,000 restaurants during the decade. A signicant event occurred for the company in December 1995, when the company merged with Tim Horton, a coffee and baked goods company headquartered in Canada. This merger enabled both companies to expand their own operations across the United StatesiCanada border and provided a strong foundation for further expansion of Wendy's and Tim Horton's franchise operations. The Challenges of the New Millennium The new millennium brought many changes to Wendy's. John \"Jack\" T. Schuessler was named CEO and chairman of the board in March 2000, and the company opened its 6,000th restaurant in October 2001. But these milestones were overshadowed by the death of Dave Thomas in January 2002. Maintaining the momentum of the past decade was going to depend on Wendy's ability to establish itself as the franchisor of choice for franchisees, the employer of choice for employees, and the restaurant of choice for customers. Thus, one of the most critical aspects of customer satisfaction had to do with the quality, price, and variety of the products sold. Menu decisions would likely become increasingly important as Wendy's continued to implement its portfolio approach of Super Value menu items, \"specialty\" menu items, and \"core\" menu items. As the company began its post-Dave Thomas era, management thought that perhaps the time had come to give serious consideration to eliminating at least one of the original menu items. Of these, chili seemed to be the most likely candidate. In addition to being the menu \"maverick,\" chili represented a relatively small percentage of total restaurant sales, and there was considerable controversy over its true prot margin. The issue, it seemed, had to do with determining the actual cost of a bowl of chili. This same issue had, in fact, been debated but never resolved back in 1979 when Wendy's salad bar was introduced. Thus, regardless of the ultimate menu decision, management was determined to gure out once and for all what a bowl of chili really cost. Costing the Chili Wendy's chili was prepared daily by the assistant manager, in accordance with Wendy's secret recipe. It was slow-simmered in a double boiler on a separate range top for a period of four to six hours. While cooking, the chili had to be stirred at least once each hour, and at the end of the day it was refrigerated for sale the following day. Normally, it took between 10 and 15 minutes to prepare a pot (referred to at Wendy's as a batch) of chili. First, the 48 quarter-pound cooked ground beef patties needed for a batch were obtained, if available, from the walk-in cooler. This took about one minute. These patties had been \"well-done\" sometime during the previous three days. Most of the time, it was not necessary to cook meat specifically for use in making chili, although the need to do so was more likely to occur during the months of October through March when approximately 60% of total annual chili sales occurred. If, as only happened approximately 10% of the time, it became necessary to cook meat specically for use in making chili, the number of beef patties needed were taken from the trays of uncooked hamburgers that had been prepared using a special patty machine, at the rate of 120 patties every ve minutes, earlier that morning. On average, it took 10 minutes to cook 48 hamburger patties. Before it was placed in the chili pot, the meat had to be chopped into small pieces. This generally took about ve minutes to do. The remaining ingredients then had to be obtained from the shelves and mixed with the meat. This process also took about five minutes to complete, after which the chili was ready to be cooked. The quantities and costs of the ingredients needed to make a batch of chili and the labor costs associated with the different classications of restaurant personnel are shown in Tables 4 and 5. Other direct costs associated with the chili included serving bowls, $0.035 each; lids for chili served at the carry-out window, $0.025 each; and spoons, $0.01 each. Table 4. Chili ingredients and costs. Quantity Description Cost 1 No. 10 can of crushed tomatoes $2.75/can 5 46-02. cans of tomato juice $1.25/can 1 Wendy\" seasoning packet $1 .00/packet 2 No. 10 cans of red beans $2.25/can 48 Cooked quarter-pound ground beef patties g 12 lb. of ground beef} $3.50/lb. Note: The batch of chi1i described above yielded approximately 57 8-ounce servings. Table 5. Restaurant labor costs. Description Cost Store Manager $800.00/week (salary) Co-Manager $ 1 2. 50/110ur Assistant Manager $10.50/hour Managem ent Trainee $7. 00/hour Crew $5 . 75/110ur Note: Payroll taxes and other employee-related costs averaged about 10% of the above amounts. Chili Sales The selling prices for all Wendy's' products sold by company restaurants were set at corporate headquarters. Although some price differences existed among restaurants in different locations, representative prices for 2001 were $0.99 for an 8-0unce serving of chili, $1.59 for a 12-0unce serving of chili, and $1.89 for a \"single\" hamburger. Chili sales were seasonal, and comprised about 5% of total Wendy's store sales compared with about 55% for hamburgers. As shown in Exhibit 1, Wendy's consolidated cost of sales, as a percentage of retail revenues, increased to 63.8% in 2001 from 63.1% in 2000. Food costs in 2001 reected a 13.4% increase in beef costs, which was partially offset by a 1.6% selling price increase. Retail sales increased by 6.5%, and net income increased by about 14% during 2001. Exhibit 1 WENDY'S CHILI: A COSTING CONUNDRUM Statement of Income for the Years Ended December 31, 2001, and 2000 (in thousands, except per-share data) 2001 2000 Revenue: Retail operations $1,925,319 $1,807,841 Other, principally interest 465,878 429,105 $2,391,197 $2,236,946 Costs and expenses: Cost of sales 1,229,277 1,140,840 Company restaurant operating costs 406,185 382,963 Operating costs 91,701 86,272 General and administrative expenses 216,124 208,173 Depreciation and amortization of property and equipment 118,280 108,297 International charges - 18,370 Other expense 1,722 5,514 Interest, net 20,528 15,080 $2,083,817 $1,965,509 Income before income taxes 307,380 271,437 Income taxes 113,731 101,789 Net income 193,649 169,648 Net income per common and common equivalent share $1.65 $1.44 Dividends per common share $0.24 $0.24 Data sources: Wendy's annual reports, 200072001