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In examining the history of the visionary companies, we were struck by how often they made some of their best moves not by detailed strategic planning, but rather by experimentation, trial and error, opportunism, and--quite literally--accident. What looks in hindsight like a brilliant strategy was often the residual result of opportunistic experimentation and "purposeful accidents." References: Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

When I look back on the decisions I've made, it's clear that I made some of my best choices not through a thorough analytical investigation of my options, but instead by trial and error and, often, simply by accident. The somewhat random aspect of my success or failure is, at the same time, both encouraging and scary.

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Television and radio editorials--when they rarely occur--are usually bland; typically, they are opposed to sin and for freedom. But too many newspaper editorials are the same, and newspapers do not have a federal license that might be taken away. The unspoken motto that hangs over too many editorial-writing desks is: Don't offend the advertisers. Don't offend the public. Don't be too controversial. References: Simon, P. (2003). Our culture of pandering. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

Editorials on radio and television are most often rather bland with opposition being raised to bad things and good things being, unsurprisingly, praised (Simon, 2003). The same problem occurs with editorials in many newspapers and, unlike their media counterparts, newspapers are not federally licensed and thus cannot be threatened with license revocation. So we are left with the question of how to encourage media of various types to promote a more meaningful dialog in society. References: Simon, P. (2003). Our culture of pandering. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

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Major changes within organizations are usually initiated by those who are in power. Such decision-makers sponsor the change and then appoint someone else - perhaps the director of training - to be responsible for implementing and managing change. Whether the appointed change agent is in training development or not, there is often the implicit assumption that training will "solve the problem." And, indeed, training may solve part of the problem.... The result is that potentially effective innovations suffer misuse, or even no use, in the hands of uncommitted users. References: Dormant, D. (1986). The ABCD's of managing change. In M. Smith (Ed.), Introduction to performance technology (pp. 238-256). Washington, D.C.: The National Society for Performance and Instruction.

When major changes are initiated in organizations, "... there is often the implicit assumption that training will 'solve the problem.' And, indeed, training may solve part of the problem" (Dormant, 1986, p. 238). References: Dormant, D. (1986). The ABCD's of managing change. In M. Smith (Ed.), Introduction to performance technology (pp. 238-256). Washington, D.C.: The National Society for Performance and Instruction.

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As a further example, APT queries and their results may be used to form rules for expert systems that become part of an intelligent computer-based instructional system. Such a system theoretically can optimize student learning by recommending instructional sequences (i.e., temporal patterns) that have high probabilities of resulting in student mastery. In other words, APT-based decision making by a computer program can provide an empirical foundation for artificial intelligence. References: Frick, T. W. (1990). Analysis of patterns in time: A method of recording and quantifying temporal relations in education. American Educational Research Journal, 27(1), 180-204.

One way that learning can be personalized is through the use of computers to aid in "recommending instructional sequences (i.e., temporal patterns) that have high probabilities of resulting in student mastery" (Frick, 1990, p. 202). However, the ability for computers to make appropriate decisions about instructional strategies is limited, in part, by the quality of information they have access to. References: Frick, T. W. (1990). Analysis of patterns in time: A method of recording and quantifying temporal relations in education. American Educational Research Journal, 27(1), 180-204.

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Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is satisfying because it shows us a way in which simplicity could change into complexity, how unordered atoms could group themselves into ever more complex patterns until they ended up manufacturing people. References: Dawkins, R. (1989). The selfish gene (3rd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

There is a range of perspectives on Darwin's ideas about evolution. His theory of evolution shows us a way in which simplicity could change into complexity that many find appealing. When Dawkins (1989) states that "Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is satisfying" (p. 12), he points to the ability of the theory to explain complex phenomenon. References: Dawkins, R. (1989). The selfish gene (3rd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

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Modifications that increase task difficulty are also presented to assist instructors in structuring developmental progressions for activities that reflect various net/wall games. For example, game modifications that require participants to strike a ball with a hand after a bounce are introduced before requiring participants to strike a ball with a racquet or with a hand without a bounce. References: Mandigo, J. L., & Anderson, A. T. (2003). Using the pedagogical principles in net/wall games to enhance teaching effectiveness. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 14(1), 8-11.

A common strategy in education in general is progressively increasing the complexity of tasks. In the context of physical education, Mandigo and Anderson (2003) describe approaches to modifying net/wall games to help instructors in putting together developmental progressions where the task difficulty increases at each step. References: Mandigo, J. L., & Anderson, A. T. (2003). Using the pedagogical principles in net/wall games to enhance teaching effectiveness. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 14(1), 8-11.

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It is possible to travel to the future. That is, relativity shows that it is possible to create a time machine that will jump you forward in time. You step into the time machine, wait, step out, and find that much more time has passed on the earth than has passed for you. We do not have the technology today to do this, but it is just a matter of engineering: we know it can be done. References: Hawking, S., & Mlodinow, L. (2008). A briefer history of time (Reprint.). New York, NY: Bantam.

Scientists express surprising confidence about the possibility of time travel. While they acknowledge that we don't possess the required technology, they do point out that it's just a question of engineering since it is clearly not impossible (Hawking & Mlodinow, 2008). If society did have access to technology that enabled travel to the future, how exactly would we use it?

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Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is satisfying because it shows us a way in which simplicity could change into complexity, how unordered atoms could group themselves into ever more complex patterns until they ended up manufacturing people. References: Dawkins, R. (1989). The selfish gene (3rd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.	While the theory of evolution does have detractors, I find it provides a very convincing explanation of how highly complex organisms such as humans could evolve from simple atoms (Dawkins, 1989).

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In a complex task such as creating a website for learning, instructors may want to support the generation of multiple solutions in learners' peer feedback. Anonymity may create a social context where learners feel freer to express varied ideas, and make the task of giving feedback less inhibited. However, teachers need to know just how anonymity impacts the learning dynamic in order to make informed choices about when anonymous configurations are appropriate in peer feedback. References: Howard, C. D., Barrett, A. F., & Frick, T. W. (2010). Anonymity to promote peer feedback: Pre-service teachers' comments in asynchronous computer-mediated communication. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 43(1), 89-112.

According to Howard, Barrett, and Frick (2010), in order to make appropriate choices educators must understand the ways in which hiding or showing the identity of participants can impact the interaction that takes place in peer feedback activities. Obscuring the identity of participants in peer feedback "may create a social context where learners feel freer to express varied ideas, and make the task of giving feedback less inhibited" (p. 90). References: Howard, C. D., Barrett, A. F., & Frick, T. W. (2010). Anonymity to promote peer feedback: Pre-service teachers' comments in asynchronous computer-mediated communication. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 43(1), 89-112.

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The new paradigm of education requires the student, teacher, and parents to be informed of what the student has actually learned at any point in time, to assure that progress is continuous and personalized, and to make good decisions about what to learn next. The recordkeeping tool of an information-age LMS will replace the current report card. References: Reigeluth, C. M., Watson, W. R., Watson, S. L., Dutta, P., Chen, Z. C., & Powell, N. D. P. (2008). Roles for technology in the information-age paradigm of education: Learning management systems. Educational Technology, 48(6), 32-39.

Some have suggested approaches for replacing the current report card. For example, Reigeluth and colleagues (2008) suggest a recording-keeping tool that could inform key stake holders of the current state of a student's knowledge to facilitate good decision-making about what a student should study next. References: Reigeluth, C. M., Watson, W. R., Watson, S. L., Dutta, P., Chen, Z. C., & Powell, N. D. P. (2008). Roles for technology in the information-age paradigm of education: Learning management systems. Educational Technology, 48(6), 32-39.

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