Please, Do small brief (Intro, body, conclu), comprising the most important takeaways of this text Just a few notes about it please I really need your assistance on them Thank you very much ICLR LECTURE TRANSCRIPT July 2010 The Snail and the Ginger Beer The Singular Case of Donoghue v Stevenson Mrs May Donoghue travelled from Glasgow to Paisley on 26 August 1928 a Sunday which fell during the annual trades holiday for the working people of the city She was, at that time, living with her brother in a flat at 49 Kent Street in the heart of Glasgow around 7 or 8 miles away During her time in Paisley she entered the Wellmeadow Cafe It was late in the evening The proprietor of the cafe was Francis Minghella and he sold, among other things, ice cream and fizzy drinks Every lawyer and law student can recall or, at least, thinks he or she can recall what happened next, but it is usually sensible to check one's recollection against the primary material In this case you reach for a leather bound book in the Parliamentary Archives If you do this you will find the following pleading which reads 'At or about 8 50 pm on or about 26th August 1928, the pursuer was in the shop occupied by Francis Minchella, and known as Wellmeadow Caf, at Wellmeadow Street, Paisley, with a friend The said friend ordered for the pursuer ice cream, and ginger beer, suitable to be used with the ice cream as an iced drink Her friend, acting as aforesaid, was supplied by the said Mr Minchella with a bottle of ginger beer manufactured by the defender for sale to members of the public The said bottle was made of dark opaque glass, and the pursuer and her friend had no reason to suspect that the bottle contained anything else than the aerated water The said Mr Minchella poured some of the said ginger beer from the bottle into a tumbler containing ice cream The pursuer then drank some of the contents of the 1 Vol 873 File reference HL PO JU 4 3 873 1 tumbler Her friend then lifted the said ginger beer bottle and was pouring out the remainder of the contents into the said tumbler when a snail, which had been, unknown to the pursuer, her friend, or the said Mr Minchella, in the bottle and was in a state of decomposition, floated out of the said bottle In consequence of the nauseating sight of the snail in such circumstances, and of the noxious condition of the said snail tainted ginger beer consumed by her, the pursuer sustained shock and illness '2 And this is almost as much as we have The solid research of Lord Rodger and others in the late 1980s rescued the Donoghue v Stevenson litigants from what EP Thompson once called 'the enormous condescension of posterity' We now know quite alot about the lives of Mrs Donoghue and of David Stevenson of the Paisley firm of fizzy pop manufacturers with the same name, but we know very little about what actually happened on the late August evening in 1928 The facts of Donoghue v Stevenson themselves are ordinary, perhaps moderately amusing (if unpleasant for Mrs Donoghue), but the factual background is not the reason why we remember the case It was, instead, the legal principle established when Mrs Donoghue's case reached the House of Lords and, specifically, something called the neighbour principle that ensured its place in history The principal author of this, as we know, was Lord Atkin Mrs Donoghue's principal problem was the absence of a contract Her friend had purchased the ginger beer from Mr Minghella the cafe owner Mrs Donoghue sued Mr Stevenson's firm the manufacturer (in fact, she sued Mr Minghella as well, but discontinued the action against him at an early stage and paid his costs) As I have said, her problem was that she had no contract with Mr Stevenson This was thought by most to be an insurmountable obstacle Her action was brought in tort and, on one reading, the decision in Donoghue v Stevenson and the neighbour principle to which it gave birth can simply be seen as the final stage in a centuries 2 Condescendence II 3 See, Alan Rodger QC (Lord Rodger of Earlsferry), 'Mrs Donoghue and Alfenus Varus' (1988) 41 CLP 1 and Professor William M McBryde, 'Donoghue v Stevenson the Story of the Snail in the Bottle Case' in Gamble, AJ (ed) Obligations in Context (W Green, 1990) 2 long process by which the tort of negligence was disentangled from the law of contract The presence of foreign bodies in Scottish ginger beer bottles was a surprisingly regular phenomenon in the late 1920s The conjoined appeals in Mullen v AG Barr Company Limited concerned dead mice floating in the bottom of such bottles The consumers of the mouse flavoured ginger beer sued the manufacturer in negligence One of the cases was successful at first instance and the other claim was dismissed A conjoined appeal was heard by the Court of Session over the course of 3 days in early March 1929 The Mullen v Barr Claimants argued at first instance that negligence could be inferred from the mere presence of the dead mice in the ginger beer bottles This argument failed decisively on appeal A majority in the Court of Session 5 also held that even if the Claimants had been able to prove negligence on the part of the manufacturer, no duty of care would have been owed by the manufacturer to the ultimate consumer It was held that, in the absence of a contract, a duty of care was not owed by a manufacturer putting a product on the market, except where first, the manufacturer knew that the product was dangerous as a result of some defect and that fact was concealed from the purchaser (in which case the manufacturer would be guilty of negligence or, in appropriate cases, even fraud) or, second, where the manufacturer was the producer of goods which were dangerous per se (the judgments give the example of explosives) and failed to warn the purchaser of this fact It is worthy of note that junior counsel for the Mullen v Barr Claimants sought, unsuccessfully, to persuade the Court of Session that the ginger beer manufacturer could be equated with a dealer in gelignite Judgment in the Mullen v Barr appeals was delivered on 20 March 1929 Twenty days later Mrs Donoghue commenced proceedings in the Court of Session in Edinburgh Her solicitor, Walter Leechman, had acted as agent for the solicitors who acted for the losing Claimants in Mullen v Barr Unsurprisingly, Mrs Donoghue's case also came to grief in the Court of Session the proceedings in Edinburgh took a little over nineteen months She won 4 1929 SC 461 5 Lord Hunter dissented 3 her case at first instance before the Lord Ordinary Lord Moncrieff Lord Moncrieff picked his way fastidiously through the unsupportive judgments on appeal in Mullen v Barr and was persuaded to find for Mrs Donoghue primarily on the basis that danger was present in the subtle potency of risk presented by tainted food or drinks (which potency was increased by the distribution of bottles in sealed vessels destined for the purchaser the ultimate consumer) Having won her case at first instance, Mrs Donoghue then lost decisively on appeal The four man bench that heard Mr Stevenson's appeal in Donoghue v Stevenson was identical to that which had dismissed the Mullen v Barr claims Predictably, the Court of Session upheld the appeal But unlike the Mullen v Barr Claimants, Mrs Donoghue and her legal team decided to take their chances in the House of Lords Mr Stevenson's legal team were pessimistic about their client's prospects in the Lords Leading counsel representing Mr Stevenson (Mr Normand KC) later wrote to Lord Macmillan, 'I personally thought that the HL would decide as they did in fact decide, but that we had a very strong case on the facts If the case had gone to proof I think it would have been fought and possibly on the issue whether there was a snail in the bottle Mr Normand KC suggested that the Dean of the Faculty of Advocates also believed that Mr Stevenson would lose in the House of Lords As Mr Normand KC indicates, Mrs Donoghue's case was taken through the Courts on a point of law whether she had a claim in negligence The messy and rather banal facts were not allowed to get in the way I think we now have reached the point where the neighbour principle has to be recited We all know it It is usually one of the first things that an undergraduate lawyer is taught It is surprising that it has not yet been rewritten in rhyming couplets or set to music Lord Atkin said this 'The liability for negligence, whether you style it such or treat it as in other systems as a species of culpa, is no doubt based upon a general public sentiment of moral wrongdoing for which the offender must pay But acts or omissions which any moral code would censure cannot in a practical world be 6 This letter appears in Lord Atkin's private papers which are held by Gray's Inn (File Reference AK1 JUD 1 1), but is also referred to in Lewis, G Lord Atkin (Hart Publishing, 1999) 4 treated so as to give a right to every person injured by them to demand relief In this way rules of law arise which limit the range of complainants and the extent of their remedy The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law, you must not injure your neighbour and the lawyer's question, Who is my neighbour receives a restricted reply You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour Who, then, in law is my neighbour The answer seems to be persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in my contemplation as being so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions which are called in question 7 As a result of the importance given to Lord Atkin's dictum in the decades since Donoghue v Stevenson was decided one might be forgiven for thinking that the neighbour principle arrived in 1932 quite unique and fully formed In fact, there were of course a number of sources for Lord Atkin's approach First, a passage in a mid eighteenth century legal tract Law relative to Trials at Nisi Prius The author of this has not been definitively identified, but Professor Baker believes that it was Lord Bathurst (and that's good enough for me) Second, the decision of the Court of Appeal, and particularly Sir William Brett Master of the Rolls (later Viscount Esher), in Heaven v Pender, 10 decided at the end of the nineteenth century Third, the work done by Justice Benjamin Cardozo in the New York Court of Appeals in MacPherson v Buick Motor Company 11 Fourth, and most obviously, the Gospel and the parable of the good Samaritan 12 it was to St Luke that Lord Atkin gave most (but not all) of the credit for his formulation of the duty of care in negligence The mid eighteenth text to which I have referred the Law Relative to Trials at Nisi Prius (printed in 1768 from a mid eighteenth century manuscript) has been 7 1932 AC 562, 580 per Lord Atkin (HL(Sc)) 8 578 9 (1714 1794) (Solicitor General, Attorney General, Lord Chancellor from 1771 to 1778 and a Baker, JH and Milson, SFC Sources of English Legal History Private Law to 1750 (Butterworth, 1986), p contemporary of Lord Mansfield and Sir William Blackstone) 10 (1883) 11 QBD 503 (QB) 11 (1916) 217 NY 382 12 Luke 10 25 37 LO 5 said to contain a 'precocious generalisation' 13 which we might regard as the direct ancestor of Lord Atkin's neighbour principle One hundred and eighty years or so before Lord Atkin's speech, the author of this tract wrote 'Of injuries arising from negligence or folly Every man ought to take reasonable care that he does not injure his neighbour Therefore, whenever a man receives any hurt through the default of another, though the same were not wilful, yet if it be occasioned by negligence or folly the law gives him an action to recover damages for the injury so sustained where the defendant, by uncocking his gun, accidentally wounded the plaintiff who was standing by to see him do it If a man ride an unruly horse in any place much frequented (such as Lincoln's Inn Fields) to break and tame him, if the horse hurt another, he will be liable to an action and it may be brought against the master as well as the servant, for it will be intended that he sent the servant to train the horse there or it may be brought against the master alone 14 Nearly all of the ingredients of what later became the neighbour principle are here Even the vocabulary and its borrowing from the central New Testament teaching echoes what Lord Atkin would later say A person ought to take reasonable care not to injure his neighbour One's neighbour is the person who (it can be foreseen) will probably be injured as a result of one's failure to act with reasonable care This territory was also the setting for Heaven v Pender 15 which was reported in 1883 This concerned an accident at work at a time when health and safety considerations were regarded as much less important than today Indeed, in one case decided at the end of the nineteenth century a very eminent Judge had 13 Cornish, WR Clark, G de N Law and Society in England 1750 1950 (Sweet Maxwell, 1989), p 505 14 The case to which the author refers is Mitchell v Allestry (1676) This running down action concerned a woman knocked over by a carriage drawn by two 'wild and untamed mares' being broken to carriage driving in a crowded and, therefore, highly unsuitable place (Lincoln's Inn Fields) There was judgment for the injured Claimant The Court accepted the Claimant's plea that, 'It was the defendant's fault to bring a wild horse into such a place where mischief might probably be done by reason of the concourse of people ' Mitchell v Allestry (1676) can be found in Baker, JH and Milson, SFC Sources of English Legal History Private Law to 1750 (Butterworth, 1986), p 572 15 (1883) 11 QBD 503 (CA) 16 Lord Bramwell in Smith v Charles Baker Sons 1891 AC 325 (HL(E)) 6 suggested that the employee's acceptance of a weekly wage was the quid pro quo for running the risk of being injured in the course of his work At this time the law recognised certain factual situations categories of case where a duty of care existed which, if breached, might then give rise to a cause of action in negligence If one's case did not fit into such category then there was no cause of action in law In Heaven v Pender, the Claimant was employed by a ship painter His employer had a contract with the ship owner The ship owner, in turn, had a contract with the Defendant dock owner for the provision of premises and scaffolding to enable painting work to take place The Claimant was injured in the course of his employment when a defective scaffold rope snapped He sued the Defendant dock proprietor The Claimant's claim was dismissed at first instance and he appealed The leading judgment was delivered by the Master of the Rolls Sir William Brett He had no doubts about the basis of the Claimant's action 'The action is in form and substance an action for negligence '17 The Master of the Rolls also identified the ingredients of the tort in a recognisably modern form stating that the focus had to lie on whether a duty of care existed a mere 'want of attention amounting to a want of ordinary care is not a good cause of action'18 It seems obvious to us that the dock proprietor should owe a duty of care to the injured employee, but it was far from obvious at the end of the nineteenth century Brett MR referred to some of the established categories of cases where it had been accepted that, in the absence of a contractual relationship between the parties or any fraud, a duty of care did exist, but the difficulty he faced was that the circumstances of Mr Heaven's case did not fall into any established category The Master of the Rolls solved this conundrum by returning to first principles 'every one ought', he said, 'by the universally recognised rules of right and wrong, to think so much with regard to the safety of others who may be jeopardised by his conduct' and, if reasonable care was not exercised and injury resulted then, 'the law, which takes cognisance of and enforces the rules of right and wrong, will force him to give an indemnity for the injury '19 It was, therefore, appeal to a universal principle, a natural law of right and wrong, that 17 (1883) 11 QBD 503, 506 18 Ibid, at p 507 tp 19 lbid, at p 508 7 justified the rule which the MR applied to the case Heaven v Pender may be regarded as another, secular, ancestor of Lord Atkin's neighbour principle Brett MR went on to formulate the following 'larger proposition' ' whenever one person is by circumstances placed in such a position with regard to another that every one of ordinary sense who did think would at once recognise that if he did not use ordinary care and skill in his own conduct with regard to those circumstances he would cause danger of injury to the person or property of another, a duty arises to use ordinary care and skill to avoid such danger '20 Sir William Brett was apparently so convinced of the generality of this principle that he made clear that it included, 'all the recognised cases of liability ' In other words, the piecemeal development of the tort of negligence identifying factual categories of case in which a duty of care was owed was to be no more Instead, the Brett MR formula could be deployed Thus, a duty of care would be owed and an action in negligence might be available where a person supplied goods or machinery to another knowing that, unless reasonable care and skill were exercised in the supply of the goods or machinery, a danger of injury might result Clearly, in Heaven v Pender the Claimant's case satisfied the MR's formula A duty of care had been owed by the Defendant to the Claimant and liability was established The ambition of the leading judgment in Heaven v Pender could, if allowed to develop and to be applied, have led to a very significant extension of the law of negligence at a time when the fairly rudimentary industrial machinery of the nineteenth century was killing and maiming people in increasingly industrial quantities The roots set down by Heaven v Pender proved, however, to be shallow People by which I mean other lawyers started to be rude about Sir William Brett's formula very quickly The process of retreat began in the same case Lords Justices Cotton and Bowen agreed with the Master of the Rolls that the Claimant should win his appeal However, they based their decision on much narrower 20 lbid, at p 509 8 grounds These Judges believed that the Claimant was entitled to succeed in his action because he was present at the dock for the purposes of his work and, being 'engaged in work in the performance of which the defendant was interested', he fell within one of the existing categories of (occupiers' liability) case in which a duty of care had already been held to exist Lord Justice Cotton went out of his way to make it clear that he did not espouse the same principle identified by his senior colleague, 'I am unwilling to concur with the Master of the Rolls in laying down unnecessarily the larger principle which he entertains, inasmuch as there are many cases in which the principle was impliedly negatived '21 By the time that Donoghue v Stevenson was decided Brett MR's apparently universal formula was so out of favour that, in the course of his own powerfully dissenting speech, Lord Buckmaster offered the prayer that it be, 'buried so securely that its perturbed spirit shall no longer vex the law '22 Even Lord Atkin had doubts about the potential expansiveness of the Master of the Rolls' formula he felt it necessary, in a product liability context like Donoghue v Stevenson, to qualify the formula so that it applied only where goods were to be used immediately and where the ultimate consumer would have no possibility of examining them prior to consumption (an approach which he felt was consistent with what Sir William Brett intended) 23 Sir Frederick Pollock was rude about Brett MR's formula in one of the earliest academic writings about Donoghue v Stevenson 'The precision of a neat draftsman', wrote Pollock, 'has never been counted among Brett MR's accomplishments 2 '24 As I have indicated, the other two sources for Lord Atkin's neighbour principle were the judgment of Benjamin Cardozo in the New York Court of Appeals in MacPherson v Buick and Lord Atkin's own reading of the Gospels Whatever the Judges in England thought about Brett MR's decision in Heaven v Pender, Justice Cardozo, sitting in New York in 1916, liked it The MacPherson case involved a defective car with wooden wheels One of the wheels fell to bits, the car collapsed and the Claimant driver was thrown out of the car and suffered injury It may not be 21 lbid, at p 516 22 1932 AC 562, 576 23 lbid, at pp 581 582 24 Pollock, F 'The Snail in the Bottle and Thereafter' (1933) 49 LQR 22, 25 9 wholly irrelevant to the outcome of the case that, at the time that this happened, the Claimant was driving a sick neighbour to hospital The Claimant had purchased his car from a retailer who had, in turn, sourced the car from a manufacturer The Claimant sued the manufacturer with whom he had no contract Justice Cardozo recognised Brett MR's formula as the concise expression of the 'tests and standards' of US law (at least in New York State) He therefore resuscitated the Heaven v Pender formula as a statement of general principle capable of practical application (an approach which stood in very marked contrast to the manner in which this judgment was treated on the British side of the Atlantic) Justice Cardozo stated that the application of this principle would be justified where (1) the nature of an article or object would, if negligently made, be reasonably certain to endanger life or limb (2) such danger was accompanied by knowledge that the article would be used by persons other than the immediate purchaser (3) the manufacturer of the finished article or object, placed on the market, must fail in his duty of inspection and, (4) the ultimate user of the article must have no opportunity of examination or inspection of the finished article before using it (and the manufacturer should know that the article will be used 'without new tests' by the ultimate consumer) If these conditions were satisfied then 'the manufacturer of this thing of danger is under a duty to make it carefully ' It would be a question of fact in each case whether the necessary element of danger was present Justice Cardozo managed to persuade most of his judicial colleagues to side with him in the outcome of MacPherson v Buick against the Chief Justice of the Court of Appeals who dissented He had no time for those, like the Chief Justice, who argued that case law concerning the danger, or otherwise, of horse drawn carriages could be applied to the brave new world of the motor car 'Precedents drawn from the days of travel by stage coach do not fit the conditions of travel to day ' By 1916, when the MacPherson case was decided by the Court of Appeals, the people of New York had new, and faster, modes of transport and, by implication, they needed new legal principles to apply to the accidents which they caused as well 10 10 Finally, as a source of the neighbour principle, the Parable of the Good Samaritan In the Gospel of St Luke the Good Samaritan teaching is introduced by a conversation between Jesus and a cunning lawyer The lawyer seeks to catch Jesus out by asking him the beguilingly simple, but rather abstract question, 'Who is my neighbour ' The lawyer knew that Jesus lacked the formal biblical education that he had enjoyed and his intention was clearly to tempt an answer which was inconsistent with Scripture In fact, Jesus avoided the trap by means of the Good Samaritan parable with its message of compassion towards strangers and its central teaching that those who were leaders of the community the Priest and the Levite showed less kindness than the suspicious foreigner, the Samaritan (a heretic), who came to the aid of the man fallen among thieves and who had spent two pence on his care The core message of the Good Samaritan story that kindness should prevail over code (if you like, over precedent) may provide a convenient metaphor for what Lord Atkin was trying to do in his formulation of the neighbour principle Lord Atkin's extra judicial writing and lecturing proves that he was thinking a good deal about the connection between conventional Christian morality and the law of tort in the years which preceded the Lords decision in Donoghue v Stevenson In 1930 he delivered a lecture at the University of Birmingham in which, while acknowledging that law and morality are not synonymous, he also made clear his view that English law set up a high, but attainable, standard of honesty and fair dealing to which the commercial community, in particular, were expected to adhere Lord Atkin deployed the example of the honest contract maker who 'swears unto his neighbour and disappointeth him not' as a person commended by the law and whose standards were enforced by the law of contract By the time that Lord Atkin delivered a further lecture this time at King's College, London a year later the honest contract maker had been joined by another exemplar of virtue the moral actor who seeks to avoid injuring his neighbours by acts of negligence 'I doubt', Lord Atkin said to his audience of law students, 'whether the whole law of tort could not be comprised in the golden maxim to do unto your neighbour as you would that he should do unto you ' The neighbour principle was clearly just a refinement of this universal, moral proposition 11 The House of Lords famously split 3 2 in Mrs Donoghue's case The late Professor Heuston, an Irishman, who lectured me when I was of an even more impressionable age referred to a 'celtic majority' in the Lords on the grounds that Lord Atkin was an Australian who considered himself a Welshman and Lords Macmillan and Thankerton were both Scottish Lord Buckmaster, who had served as Lord Chancellor and was resolutely English, delivered the leading dissenting speech His contribution has been described as having an 'almost passionate sarcasm' and there is certainly something very close to suppressed outrage in his treatment of the decision in Heaven v Pender in particular Lord Buckmaster called this a 'plank in a shipwreck' seized upon by those presumably Lord Atkin, among others who sought to extend the law of negligence in the face of what Lord Buckmaster regarded as overwhelming authority to the contrary As I have indicated, Lord Atkin was joined in the majority by Lord Macmillan who delivered a lengthy speech containing, among other things, an aphorism which has become almost as famous as the neighbour principle 'The categories of negligence are never closed ' We know a good deal about the character and thoughts of Lords Atkin and Macmillan because both wrote autobiographies Lord Atkin never completed and never published his book, but a draft can be read in the Atkin archive at Gray's Inn In 1952 Lord Macmillan's autobiography was published posthumously 'A Man of Law's Tale' Inner Temple library has a copy and it's an interesting read from a man who was not unaware of his own extraordinary talents Lord Macmillan clearly loved being a member of the House of Lords and modestly observed in his autobiography that 'I had for some years before appointment known that this was to be my ultimate destination ' Of Lord Thankerton the man, we know rather less, although one biographer recorded that, he had a habit of arguing somewhat aggressively with counsel and this did not decrease with the years It was also said that his habit of knitting while on the bench irritated some counsel '25 Identifying the ratio of Donoghue v Stevenson is not an easy task even with the benefit of the succinct headnote which appears in the Appeal Cases law report 25 Simpson, AWB (ed) Biographical Dictionary of the Common Law (Butterworths, 1984), p 525 12 It has been suggested that a restrictive reading might confine the significance of the decision to the proposition that there is a duty not to sell opaque bottles of ginger beer containing dead snails to Scottish women 26 Unsurprisingly, commentators have focussed attention on the neighbour principle, but it is questionable whether this forms part of the ratio at all Lord Atkin could not decide the case by himself and the ratio has, of course, to be found in a reading of all three majority judgments It is striking that neither Lord Macmillan nor Lord Thankerton make any reference to the neighbour principle or to anything which looks much like it Lord Thankerton did state that he so entirely agreed with the speech of Lord Atkin that he could not usefully add anything to it, but he was careful to make it clear that this was because of Lord Atkin's treatment of the English case law (rather than because he had been won over to the neighbour principle) 27 Indeed, Lord Thankerton's reasoning was couched in much more limited terms Lord Macmillan perhaps came a little closer to the neighbour principle in the closing passages of his speech where this appears, 'In the present case the respondent, when he manufactured his ginger beer, had directly in contemplation that it would be consumed by members of the public Can it be said that he could not be expected as a reasonable man to foresee that if he conducted his process of manufacture carelessly he might injure those whom he expected and desired to consume his ginger beer '28 However, this is not the neighbour principle in the unexpurgated form apparently advocated by Lord Atkin and taken up in later cases The principle that a duty of care will exist where a person reasonably foresees that his acts or omissions will be likely to result in damage to another is a more 'restricted' answer to 'the lawyer's question' than can be found in the Lucan Gospel, but it was not sufficiently restricted for even the majority supporting judges in Donoghue v Stevenson Professor Heuston, writing in 1957, described the ratio in Donoghue v Stevenson in the following, rather conservative, terms First, negligence is a separate and distinct tort Second, a contractual relationship between the parties to the action is not a prerequisite for 26 Commentary by Professor Stone in Province and Function of Law, reported by RFV Heuston in 'Donoghue v Stevenson in Retrospect' (1957) 20 MLR 1, 6 27 1932 AC 562, 604 28 lbid, at p 620 13 liability in tort Third, and finally, manufacturers of products owe a duty of care to the person who ultimately consumes or uses the product The neighbour principle might not strictly speaking have formed part of the ratio of Donoghue v Stevenson, but it can fairly safely be said that it is the reason why we are still talking about the case why I am delivering this lecture today Unleashed upon a common law world that was clearly ready for it, the neighbour principle drove the development of the modern law of negligence Expansions and contractions of the duty of care in negligence and applications of the tort to new factual situations in the decades since 1932 are measured against Donoghue v Stevenson and Lord Atkin's neighbour principle in particular The speeches in the House of Lords were delivered on 26 May 1932 and by March the following year, Mr Justice Evatt of the Australian High Court was writing to Lord Atkin to congratulate him on, as he put it, both reflecting modern industrial conditions and aligning the law of England, Scotland and, therefore, the wider empire with that of the USA, as reflected in the MacPherson judgment of Justice Cardozo 29 Perhaps it was, above all, the language with which the Law Lords expressed themselves that secured lasting fame for Donoghue v Stevenson The issues at stake in the case were of huge importance and the Judges' phrase making matched this importance Lord Atkin's speech blends an appeal to common sense and popular conceptions of morality with high principle, legal precedent and New Testament allusion a heady mixture Overturning decades even centuries of contrary authority was likely to require the winning of hearts and minds and Lord Atkin's successful attempt to capture the imagination by expressing himself in a manner that would seem unusual today let alone in 1932 clearly did the trick Lord Macmillan also rose to the challenge and devised new ways of expressing what might be regarded as a more conventional approach to the expansion of the duty of care Lord Buckmaster's dissenting speech was also couched in unusually powerful terms Indeed, the passion of his own views and the intemperate contempt that he expressed for the contrary position did, perhaps, as much to underline the 29 Atkin archive File reference ATK1 JUD 1 1 14 importance of what the House of Lords was deciding as anything else The radicalism of the neighbour principle was illuminated by the outrage of those, like Lord Buckmaster, whose more orthodox views it challenged Within a few short years, the language of Lords Atkin, Macmillan and Buckmaster had become common currency throughout the jurisdictions of the British Empire where, in a number of instances, precocious expansions of the duty of care in negligence significantly exceeded post Donoghue v Stevenson developments in the Mother country As early as 1933 the distinguished legal historian and academic Sir Frederick Pollock was warning, in the Law Quarterly Review about 'the untenable exaggeration of the rule in the Snail's Case' by 'adventurous counsel and over ingenious teachers of law '30 Pollock's warning about what he preferred to call as a man who probably read seventeenth century law reports in his spare time the 'Snail's Case' was prescient By 1932 the conservative centre of the law of negligence, struggling under the weight of twentieth century industrial conditions, could not hold As a result of the House of Lords the genie and the snail were out of the bottle It is tempting to speculate why Mrs Donoghue's case was taken to the House of Lords given the unpromising outcome in the Court of Session and the weight of precedent, including the mouse cases, which Lord Buckmaster later deployed The son of her solicitor believes that his father would have met Mrs Donoghue before taking on her case and would have persuaded himself of the veracity of her factual account before deciding that an injustice had been done to her and that this required a remedy It appears to have been felt that Mrs Donoghue would stand a better chance in London than she had in Edinburgh and her solicitor's son has said in correspondence that, 'My father did not have such a high opinion of the Scottish judges of the time, even in the Appeal Court here He felt that the judges in the House of Lords, being English and Scottish and using 'equity' as part of their base would be more equitable in their decision '31 In fact, as we have seen, a Welsh Australian and two Scots did much more to assist Mrs Donoghue than the 30 Pollock, F 'The Snail in the Bottle and Thereafter' (1933) 49 LQR 22, 26 31 I See, Taylor, M 'The Good Neighbour on Trial a Message from Scotland' (1983) 17 UBC Law Review 59, 64 15 Englishmen who also heard the appeal Equity had little to do with it However revolutionary it might have appeared to commentators and certainly to Lord Buckmaster, Lord Atkin's neighbour principle was almost self consciously placed by the Judge in the line of existing authority As we have seen, after asking himself, 'Who, then, in law is my neighbour ', Lord Atkin immediately says, 'The answer seems to be emphasis added ' in doing so, he surely acknowledges the judicial and other sources of authority for the answer that the neighbour principle provides As a result of the decision of the House of Lords the judgment of Lord Moncrieff, sitting at first instance in the Court of Session, was restored Mrs Donoghue had established her case in law The Paisley and Renfrewshire Gazette, describing Mrs Donoghue as Mrs Macalister (her maiden name), succinctly reported the outcome of proceedings in the House of Lords as 'Appeal allowed Snail in Ginger Beer Case' In order to succeed in her action Mrs Donoghue would now need to prove her factual case the presence of the snail in the bottle the negligence of Mr Stevenson the illness that she had suffered by consuming the snail flavoured ginger beer Mr Stevenson's involvement in the action can be traced to the actions of the somewhat mysterious friend with whom Mrs Donoghue was in the cafe We know from the pleadings that, after Mrs Donoghue saw the decomposed snail and apparently suffered the violent reaction that the pleading describes, her friend identified the name and address of David Stevenson from the label pasted on the side of the ginger beer bottle (the unidentified friend may justifiably be regarded as the key player in the litigation) On all the matters raised by Mrs Donoghue and her legal team Mr Stevenson, for his part, had joined issue in his pleading before the legal point had been hived off for preliminary determination He vigorously denied that any bottle manufactured by his factory contained a snail It was denied that Mr Stevenson's business had ever issued a bottle of ginger beer of the description given by Mrs Donoghue A trial in the Court of Session would determine whose version of events was correct This was scheduled to take place in January 1933 32 32 Interlocutor of 4 November 1932, as reported in McBryde, WM 'Donoghue v Stevenson the Story of the Snail in the Bottle Case' in Gamble, AJ (ed) Obligations in Context (W Green, 1990), p 26, n 23 16 Nearly a decade later, in wartime, Lord Justice MacKinnon was invited to give an after dinner speech to the law students at the University of Birmingham (he was the President of their Holdsworth Club) The speech was originally scheduled for May 1942, but was postponed for reasons related to the war effort A copy of the speech appears in Lord Atkin's papers at Gray's Inn 33 The speech was, perhaps, prepared for a well oiled audience (in need of some cheering up), 'Not for me to expound the implications of Donoghue v Stevenson To be quite candid, I detest that snail I think that my friend, Lord President Normand, explained to you that the problem in the case arose on a plea of relevancy the Scots equivalent of a demurrer I think that he did not reveal to you that when the law had been settled by the House of Lords, the case went back to Edinburgh to be tried on the facts And at that trial it was found that there never was a snail in the bottle at all That intruding gastropod was a legal fiction ' Lord President Normand was, of course, the former Solicitor General for Scotland who had appeared as leading counsel for Mr Stevenson before the House of Lords Lord Justice MacKinnon's revelation probably went down well with his audience of law students However, it was also noticed by Lord Atkin who was obviously diverting himself with some recreational reading during the long vacation of 1942 and so had a copy of the speech He sent the speech to Lord Macmillan who, following the thread back to the man who was there at the time, wrote to Normand (enclosing a copy of MacKinnon's speech) He received the following reply dated 19 September 1942 'My dear Macmillan, I have not yet seen MacKinnon's address to the Holdsworth Club His account, as you report it, of Donoghue v Stevenson is not accurate The case never went to trial I speak from recollection, but I think it can be trusted, and what I remember is that the defender died soon after the HL decided the point of relevancy The pursuer did not move to 33 File reference ATK1 JUD 1 1 17 have the defender's executors sisted as a party and there were no further proceedings So much for the sake of history ' '34 Normand's recollection of the chronology was correct On 12 November 1932, by which time the case was back in the Court of Session awaiting trial (proof), David Stevenson died In a 1990 article Professor McBryde states that, 'A year elapsed and David Stevenson's executors were sisted as parties to the case which then settled '35 Lord Macmillan sent Normand's letter on to Lord Atkin and added the following note in his cover letter of 21 September 1942 'My dear Atkin, I, too, was struck by that statement in MacKinnon's Holdsworth Club address I was sure it was wrong Before answering your letter, however, I wrote to Normand in order to verify my impression, and this morning I have a letter from him of which I enclose a copy You may take it as quite certain that the case never went to trial Whether there was or was not a snail in the bottle must remain one of history's unsolved problems 136 An article published in October 1955 in the Law Quarterly Review suggests that a myth had grown up that there was no snail in the bottle 37 Indeed, in a 1954 decision of the Court of Appeal (in the form of a Practice Note) Lord Justice Jenkins, ignorant of the private correspondence referred to above, stated confidently, ' the House of Lords heard the preliminary issue in Donoghue v Stevenson and when the trial was heard there was no snail in the bottle at all '38 Mr Ashton Cross, the author of the Law Quarterly Review article, was keen to set the record straight and corresponded with the solicitors for Mr Stevenson who informed him of the death of the Defendant and the subsequent settlement by his executors The answer, therefore, to the question what really happened in the caf is that we will never know There was no trial No witnesses gave evidence No McBryde, WM 'Donoghue v Stevenson the Story of the Snail in the Bottle Case' in Gamble, AJ (ed) 34 lbid 35 36 Atkin archive File reference ATK1 JUD 1 1 Obligations in Context (W Green, 1990), p 26 37 Ashton Cross, D 'Donoghue v Stevenson 1932 AC 562' (1955) 71 LQR 472 38 Adler v Dickson anor 1954 1 WLR 1482, 1483 (CA) 18 decision on the alleged facts was ever reached A factual determination and, perhaps, a snail are missing It does, at least, seem clear that there was a settlement Professor McBryde records that the settlement sum was 100, although he acknowledges that it is difficult to be accurate about this 39 McBryde's source for the settlement sum was Professor Heuston and he, in turn, heard about it from Lord Macmillan 40 who, one presumes, would have been told by Lord Normand Lord Rodger was told by Mrs Donoghue's grandson that it was believed that the settlement sum was 500 (the sum claimed in the proceedings), 41 although this may be an exaggeration In fact, a more accurate account of the settlement might have been provided by the son of Mrs Donoghue's solicitor who, for the purposes of an article published by the Canadian Judge, Mr Justice Taylor, in 1983, stated that he believed the sum paid by the executors of the estate to have been 200 42 While, by contrast to her lawyers, Mrs Donoghue never had her day in court, she achieved what would at the time have been a significant sum (particularly to someone suing, as she did, in pauperis) Wellmeadow Street in Paisley is still there Prior to 1990 the site of the cafe was waste ground 43 a metaphor, perhaps, for the factual void which lies at the heart of the case Between 28 and 30 September 1990 a conference on the law of negligence was organised in Paisley by the Canadian Bar Association, the Faculty of Advocates, the Law Society of Scotland and the Old Paisley Society The conference was entitled, 'The Pilgrimage to Paisley a Salute to Donoghue v Stevenson' and the conference programme records that, between 4 05 pm and 4 30 pm, the delegates paraded, to the accompaniment of pipers, to Wellmeadow Street There are photographs in the Paisley library archive of them doing so (well wrapped up for Paisley's late September weather) At the site of the Caf a memorial park and 39 McBryde, WM 'Donoghue v Stevenson the Story of the Snail in the Bottle Case in Gamble, AJ (ed) Obligations in Context (W Green, 1990), p 26, n 26 citing Heuston, RFV 'Donoghue v Stevenson in Retrospect' (1957) 20 MLR 1, 2 40 Heuston, RFV 'Donoghue v Stevenson in Retrospect' (1957) 20 MLR 1, 2, n 5 41 Rodger, A 'Mrs Donoghue and Alfenus Varus' (1988) 41 CLP 1, 9, n 98 referring to a letter of 24 July 1973 which he had received from Thomas Donoghue 42 Taylor, M 'The Good Neighbour on Trial a Message from Scotland' (1983) 17 UBC Law Review 59, 65 43 See report in The Paisley Express for 31 August 1988, 'And all because of a drink ' 19 garden were formally dedicated The afternoon's events concluded with a tea of ice cream and ginger beer In August 2008, some 80 years (nearly to the day) after Mrs Donoghue's journey, I made my own pilgrimage to Paisley, taking the train there from Glasgow on a damp afternoon The memorial park is still at the corner of Lady Lane and Wellmeadow Street and is overlooked, from the other side of the road, by the Thomas Coats Memorial Church The memorial stands alongside a busy road Wellmeadow Street between two derelict buildings an abandoned bingo hall and what was once a chapel The somewhat melancholy scene and weather were complemented by a funeral which was taking place at the adjacent co operative society funeral service In the small park itself, there is a wooden bench, donated by the Canadian Bar and constructed of Canadian Cedar wood, with decorative, snail shaped roundels A rectangular marble stone is finished with a metal plate on each side recording the allegations made in the case and the decision in the House of Lords Lord Atkin's neighbour principle is, of course, directly referenced It may seem odd that, 1990, the location was marked of an otherwise undistinguished and long demolished cafe where something of factual significance may or may not have happened But the point is, however, that something significant did emerge from Wellmeadow Street and Mrs Donoghue had to travel there from Glasgow in order for this to happen The issues raised by Donoghue v Stevenson aroused strong passions at the time that it was decided It is only necessary to read the speech of Lord Buckmaster to realise this As we have seen, the drive to limit the potential universality of Lord Atkin's neighbour principle began almost immediately Even those who expressed a grudging admiration for what the majority had decided in Donoghue v Stevenson were keen to make it clear that there had to be limits 'The decision in the Donoghue case was one of good sense and social necessity, but social necessity and good sense require some limits '44 More recently, discussions about the proper reach of the law of negligence have resulted in Parliamentary debate and the WEP 'Torts Negligence Duty of Care Liability of Contractor to Third Person' (1935) 13 44 DeRoche, Can B Rev 112, 114 20 20 passing of legislation seeking to influence the standard of care applied by the courts in certain areas of social activity 45 However, the neighbour principle, whether or not it forms part of the ratio of the majority decision in Donoghue v Stevenson, has proved stubbornly resistant to constraint and restriction In the decades which have now passed since 1932 it has inspired many efforts to extend the reach of the law of negligence to areas previously untouched by it Not all of the advances made have proved to be permanent, but Donoghue v Stevenson continues to be taught to law students and continues to be cited in important cases It is simply, always there, framing the terms of the debate As I have indicated, Donoghue v Stevenson in the House of Lords is a case of metaphors and aphorisms While Lord Macmillan and Lord Buckmaster's speeches have attracted interest and scholarship, it is Lord Atkin's speech that excites most lawyers The singular ambition of his opinion, the energy with which it was expressed and the eloquent use of metaphor and Biblical allusion all helped to ensure that it was Lord Atkin's neighbour principle that emerged as the greatest gift given by English Scots law to the wider common law world The neighbour principle was the thread which enabled the tort of negligence to escape the labyrinthine complexity of the law prior to 1932 and also provided patterns for the development of negligence over the decades that followed More than that, however, Lord Atkin's neighbour principle a careful recital of the role and limits of morality (even of kindness) in our law of obligations reminds us why the law of negligence is important and why it is still needed today 45 Compensation Act 2006 which received the Royal Assent on 25 July 2006 For an article by one of those who advised on the draft legislation, see Parker, A 'Changing the Claims Culture' (2006) 156 NLJ 702 21 119 Chancery Lane, London WC2A 1PP Tel 020 7242 6471 Fax 020 7831 5247 Email postmaster iclr co uk Registered in England as a Charity No 250605 Limited by Guarantee Company Registered No 5034 Vat No GB232 3909 76 iclr co uk

Question

Please, Do small brief (Intro, body, conclu), comprising the most important takeaways of this text  Just a few notes about it please  I really need your assistance on them  Thank you very much  ICLR LECTURE TRANSCRIPT July 2010 The Snail and the Ginger Beer  The Singular Case of Donoghue v Stevenson Mrs May Donoghue travelled from Glasgow to Paisley on 26 August 1928  a Sunday which fell during the annual trades holiday for the working people of the city  She was, at that time, living with her brother in a flat at 49 Kent Street in the heart of Glasgow around 7 or 8 miles away  During her time in Paisley she entered the Wellmeadow Cafe  It was late in the evening  The proprietor of the cafe was Francis Minghella and he sold, among other things, ice cream and fizzy drinks  Every lawyer and law student can recall or, at least, thinks he or she can recall what happened next, but it is usually sensible to check one's recollection against the primary material  In this case you reach for a leather bound book in the Parliamentary Archives  If you do this you will find the following pleading which reads  'At or about 8 50 pm on or about 26th August 1928, the pursuer was in the shop occupied by Francis Minchella, and known as Wellmeadow Caf, at Wellmeadow Street, Paisley, with a friend  The said friend ordered for the pursuer ice cream, and ginger beer, suitable to be used with the ice cream as an iced drink  Her friend, acting as aforesaid, was supplied by the said Mr Minchella with a bottle of ginger beer manufactured by the defender for sale to members of the public  The said bottle was made of dark opaque glass, and the pursuer and her friend had no reason to suspect that the bottle contained anything else than the aerated water  The said Mr Minchella poured some of the said ginger beer from the bottle into a tumbler containing ice cream  The pursuer then drank some of the contents of the 1 Vol 873  File reference HL PO JU 4 3 873  1 tumbler  Her friend then lifted the said ginger beer bottle and was pouring out the remainder of the contents into the said tumbler when a snail, which had been, unknown to the pursuer, her friend, or the said Mr Minchella, in the bottle and was in a state of decomposition, floated out of the said bottle  In consequence of the nauseating sight of the snail in such circumstances, and of the noxious condition of the said snail tainted ginger beer consumed by her, the pursuer sustained     shock and illness    '2 And this is almost as much as we have  The solid research of Lord Rodger and others in the late 1980s rescued the Donoghue v Stevenson litigants from what EP Thompson once called 'the enormous condescension of posterity'  We now know quite alot about the lives of Mrs Donoghue and of David Stevenson of the Paisley firm of fizzy pop manufacturers with the same name, but we know very little about what actually happened on the late August evening in 1928  The facts of Donoghue v Stevenson themselves are ordinary, perhaps moderately amusing (if unpleasant for Mrs Donoghue), but the factual background is not the reason why we remember the case  It was, instead, the legal principle established when Mrs Donoghue's case reached the House of Lords and, specifically, something called the neighbour principle that ensured its place in history  The principal author of this, as we know, was Lord Atkin  Mrs Donoghue's principal problem was the absence of a contract  Her friend had purchased the ginger beer from Mr Minghella  the cafe owner  Mrs Donoghue sued Mr Stevenson's firm  the manufacturer (in fact, she sued Mr Minghella as well, but discontinued the action against him at an early stage and paid his costs)  As I have said, her problem was that she had no contract with Mr Stevenson  This was thought by most to be an insurmountable obstacle  Her action was brought in tort and, on one reading, the decision in Donoghue v Stevenson and the neighbour principle to which it gave birth can simply be seen as the final stage in a centuries 2 Condescendence II  3 See, Alan Rodger QC (Lord Rodger of Earlsferry), 'Mrs Donoghue and Alfenus Varus' (1988) 41 CLP 1 and Professor William M McBryde, 'Donoghue v Stevenson  the Story of the  Snail in the Bottle  Case' in Gamble, AJ (ed) Obligations in Context (W Green, 1990)  2 long process by which the tort of negligence was disentangled from the law of contract  The presence of foreign bodies in Scottish ginger beer bottles was a surprisingly regular phenomenon in the late 1920s  The conjoined appeals in Mullen v AG Barr   Company Limited concerned dead mice floating in the bottom of such bottles  The consumers of the mouse flavoured ginger beer sued the manufacturer in negligence  One of the cases was successful at first instance and the other claim was dismissed  A conjoined appeal was heard by the Court of Session over the course of 3 days in early March 1929  The Mullen v Barr Claimants argued at first instance that negligence could be inferred from the mere presence of the dead mice in the ginger beer bottles  This argument failed decisively on appeal  A majority in the Court of Session 5 also held that even if the Claimants had been able to prove negligence on the part of the manufacturer, no duty of care would have been owed by the manufacturer to the ultimate consumer  It was held that, in the absence of a contract, a duty of care was not owed by a manufacturer putting a product on the market, except where  first, the manufacturer knew that the product was dangerous as a result of some defect and that fact was concealed from the purchaser (in which case the manufacturer would be guilty of negligence or, in appropriate cases, even fraud)  or, second, where the manufacturer was the producer of goods which were dangerous per se (the judgments give the example of explosives) and failed to warn the purchaser of this fact  It is worthy of note that junior counsel for the Mullen v Barr Claimants sought, unsuccessfully, to persuade the Court of Session that the ginger beer manufacturer could be equated with a dealer in gelignite  Judgment in the Mullen v Barr appeals was delivered on 20 March 1929  Twenty days later Mrs Donoghue commenced proceedings in the Court of Session in Edinburgh  Her solicitor, Walter Leechman, had acted as agent for the solicitors who acted for the losing Claimants in Mullen v Barr  Unsurprisingly, Mrs Donoghue's case also came to grief in the Court of Session  the proceedings in Edinburgh took a little over nineteen months  She won 4 1929 SC 461  5 Lord Hunter dissented  3 her case at first instance before the Lord Ordinary  Lord Moncrieff  Lord Moncrieff picked his way fastidiously through the unsupportive judgments on appeal in Mullen v Barr and was persuaded to find for Mrs Donoghue primarily on the basis that danger was present in the subtle potency of risk presented by tainted food or drinks (which potency was increased by the distribution of bottles in sealed vessels destined for the purchaser  the ultimate consumer)  Having won her case at first instance, Mrs Donoghue then lost decisively on appeal  The four man bench that heard Mr Stevenson's appeal in Donoghue v Stevenson was identical to that which had dismissed the Mullen v Barr claims  Predictably, the Court of Session upheld the appeal  But unlike the Mullen v Barr Claimants, Mrs Donoghue and her legal team decided to take their chances in the House of Lords  Mr Stevenson's legal team were pessimistic about their client's prospects in the Lords  Leading counsel representing Mr Stevenson (Mr Normand KC) later wrote to Lord Macmillan, 'I personally thought that the HL would decide as they did in fact decide, but that we had a very strong case on the facts  If the case had gone to proof I think it would have been fought and possibly on the issue whether there was a snail in the bottle        Mr Normand KC suggested that the Dean of the Faculty of Advocates also believed that Mr Stevenson would lose in the House of Lords  As Mr Normand KC indicates, Mrs Donoghue's case was taken through the Courts on a point of law  whether she had a claim in negligence  The messy and rather banal facts were not allowed to get in the way  I think we now have reached the point where the neighbour principle has to be recited  We all know it  It is usually one of the first things that an undergraduate lawyer is taught  It is surprising that it has not   yet been rewritten in rhyming couplets or set to music  Lord Atkin said this  'The liability for negligence, whether you style it such or treat it as in other systems as a species of  culpa,  is no doubt based upon a general public sentiment of moral wrongdoing for which the offender must pay  But acts or omissions which any moral code would censure cannot in a practical world be 6 This letter appears in Lord Atkin's private papers which are held by Gray's Inn (File Reference AK1 JUD 1 1), but is also referred to in Lewis, G Lord Atkin (Hart Publishing, 1999)  4 treated so as to give a right to every person injured by them to demand relief  In this way rules of law arise which limit the range of complainants and the extent of their remedy  The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law, you must not injure your neighbour  and the lawyer's question, Who is my neighbour  receives a restricted reply  You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour  Who, then, in law is my neighbour  The answer seems to be persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in my contemplation as being   so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions which are called in question  7 As a result of the importance given to Lord Atkin's dictum in the decades since Donoghue v Stevenson was decided one might be forgiven for thinking that the neighbour principle arrived in 1932 quite unique and fully formed  In fact, there were of course a number of sources for Lord Atkin's approach  First, a passage in a mid eighteenth century legal tract  Law relative to Trials at Nisi Prius  The author of this has not been definitively identified, but Professor Baker believes that it was Lord Bathurst (and that's good enough for me)  Second, the decision of the Court of Appeal, and particularly Sir William Brett Master of the Rolls (later Viscount Esher), in Heaven v Pender, 10 decided at the end of the nineteenth century  Third, the work done by Justice Benjamin Cardozo in the New York Court of Appeals in MacPherson v Buick Motor Company  11 Fourth, and most obviously, the Gospel and the parable of the good Samaritan  12 it was to St Luke that Lord Atkin gave most (but not all) of the credit for his formulation of the duty of care in negligence  The mid eighteenth text to which I have referred the Law Relative to Trials at Nisi Prius (printed in 1768 from a mid eighteenth century manuscript) has been 7  1932  AC 562, 580 per Lord Atkin (HL(Sc))  8 578  9 (1714 1794) (Solicitor General, Attorney General, Lord Chancellor from 1771 to 1778 and a Baker, JH and Milson, SFC Sources of English Legal History Private Law to 1750 (Butterworth, 1986), p contemporary of Lord Mansfield and Sir William Blackstone)  10 (1883) 11 QBD 503 (QB)  11 (1916) 217 NY 382  12 Luke 10 25   37  LO 5 said to contain a 'precocious generalisation' 13 which we might regard as the direct ancestor of Lord Atkin's neighbour principle  One hundred and eighty years or so before Lord Atkin's speech, the author of this tract wrote  'Of injuries arising from negligence or folly  Every man ought to take reasonable care that he does not injure his neighbour  Therefore, whenever a man receives any hurt through the default of another, though the same were not wilful, yet if it be occasioned by negligence or folly the law gives him an action to recover damages for the injury so sustained  where the     defendant, by uncocking his gun, accidentally wounded the plaintiff who was standing by to see him do it  If a man ride an unruly horse in any place much frequented (such as Lincoln's Inn Fields) to break and tame him, if the horse hurt another, he will be liable to an action  and it may be brought against the master as well as the servant, for it will be intended that he sent the servant to train the horse there  or it may be brought against the master alone  14 Nearly all of the ingredients of what later became the neighbour principle are here  Even the vocabulary and its borrowing from the central New Testament teaching echoes what Lord Atkin would later say  A person ought to take reasonable care not to injure his neighbour  One's neighbour is the person who (it can be foreseen) will probably be injured as a result of one's failure to act with reasonable care  This territory was also the setting for Heaven v Pender 15 which was reported in 1883  This concerned an accident at work at a time when health and safety considerations were regarded as much less important than today  Indeed, in one case decided at the end of the nineteenth century a very eminent Judge had 13 Cornish, WR   Clark, G de N Law and Society in England 1750 1950 (Sweet   Maxwell, 1989), p 505  14 The case to which the author refers is Mitchell v Allestry (1676)  This running down action concerned a woman knocked over by a carriage drawn by two 'wild and untamed mares' being broken to carriage driving in a crowded and, therefore, highly unsuitable place (Lincoln's Inn Fields)  There was judgment for the injured Claimant  The Court accepted the Claimant's plea that, 'It was the defendant's fault to bring a wild horse into such a place where mischief might probably be done by reason of the concourse of people ' Mitchell v Allestry (1676) can be found in Baker, JH and Milson, SFC Sources of English Legal History Private Law to 1750 (Butterworth, 1986), p 572  15 (1883) 11 QBD 503 (CA)  16 Lord Bramwell in Smith v Charles Baker   Sons  1891  AC 325 (HL(E))  6 suggested that the employee's acceptance of a weekly wage was the quid pro quo for running the risk of being injured in the course of his work  At this time the law recognised certain factual situations   categories of case where a duty of care existed which, if breached, might then give rise to a cause of action in negligence  If one's case did not fit into such category then there was no cause of action in law  In Heaven v Pender, the Claimant was employed by a ship painter  His employer had a contract with the ship owner  The ship owner, in turn, had a contract with the Defendant dock owner for the provision of premises and scaffolding to enable painting work to take place  The Claimant was injured in the course of his employment when a defective scaffold rope snapped  He sued the Defendant dock proprietor  The Claimant's claim was dismissed at first instance and he appealed  The leading judgment was delivered by the Master of the Rolls  Sir William Brett  He had no doubts about the basis of the Claimant's action  'The action is in form and substance an action for negligence '17 The Master of the Rolls also identified the ingredients of the tort in a recognisably modern form stating that the focus had to lie on whether a duty of care existed  a mere 'want of attention amounting to a want of ordinary care is not a good cause of action'18 It seems obvious to us that the dock proprietor should owe a duty of care to the injured employee, but it was far from obvious at the end of the nineteenth century  Brett MR referred to some of the established categories of cases where it had been accepted that, in the absence of a contractual relationship between the parties or any fraud, a duty of care did exist, but the difficulty he faced was that the circumstances of Mr Heaven's case did not fall into any established category  The Master of the Rolls solved this conundrum by returning to first principles  'every one ought', he said, 'by the universally recognised rules of right and wrong, to think so much with regard to the safety of others who may be jeopardised by his conduct' and, if reasonable care was not exercised and injury resulted then, 'the law, which takes cognisance of and enforces the rules of right and wrong, will force him to give an indemnity for the injury '19 It was, therefore, appeal to a universal principle, a natural law of right and wrong, that 17 (1883) 11 QBD 503, 506  18 Ibid, at p 507  tp 19 lbid, at p 508  7 justified the rule which the MR applied to the case  Heaven v Pender may be regarded as another, secular, ancestor of Lord Atkin's neighbour principle  Brett MR went on to formulate the following 'larger proposition'  '    whenever one person is by circumstances placed in such a position with regard to another that every one of ordinary sense who did think would at once recognise that if he did not use ordinary care and skill in his own conduct with regard to those circumstances he would cause danger of injury to the person or property of another, a duty arises to use ordinary care and skill to avoid such danger  '20   Sir William Brett was apparently so convinced of the generality of this principle that he made clear that it included, 'all the recognised cases of liability ' In other words, the piecemeal development of the tort of negligence   identifying factual categories of case in which a duty of care was owed was to be no more  Instead, the Brett MR formula could be deployed  Thus, a duty of care would be owed and an action in negligence might be available where a person supplied goods or machinery to another knowing that, unless reasonable care and skill were exercised in the supply of the goods or machinery, a danger of injury might result  Clearly, in Heaven v Pender the Claimant's case satisfied the MR's formula  A duty of care had been owed by the Defendant to the Claimant and liability was established  The ambition of the leading judgment in Heaven v Pender could, if allowed to develop and to be applied, have led to a very significant extension of the law of negligence at a time when the fairly rudimentary industrial machinery of the nineteenth century was killing and maiming people in increasingly industrial quantities  The roots set down by Heaven v Pender proved, however, to be shallow  People by which I mean other lawyers   started to be rude about Sir William Brett's formula very quickly  The process of retreat began in the same case  Lords   Justices Cotton and Bowen agreed with the Master of the Rolls that the Claimant should win his appeal  However, they based their decision on much narrower 20 lbid, at p 509  8 grounds  These Judges believed that the Claimant was entitled to succeed in his action because he was present at the dock for the purposes of his work and, being 'engaged in work in the performance of which the defendant was interested', he fell within one of the existing categories of (occupiers' liability) case in which a duty of care had already been held to exist  Lord Justice Cotton went out of his way to make it clear that he did not espouse the same principle identified by his senior colleague, 'I am unwilling to concur with the Master of the Rolls in laying down unnecessarily the larger principle which he entertains, inasmuch as there are many cases in which the principle was impliedly negatived  '21 By the time that Donoghue v Stevenson was decided Brett MR's apparently universal formula was so out of favour that, in the course of his own powerfully dissenting speech, Lord Buckmaster offered the prayer that it be, 'buried so securely that      its  perturbed spirit shall no longer vex the law  '22 Even Lord Atkin had doubts about the potential expansiveness of the Master of the Rolls' formula  he felt it necessary, in a product liability context like Donoghue v Stevenson, to qualify the formula so that it applied only where goods were to be used immediately and where the ultimate consumer would have no possibility of examining them prior to consumption (an approach which he felt was consistent with what Sir William Brett intended)  23 Sir Frederick Pollock was rude about Brett MR's formula in one of the earliest academic writings about Donoghue v Stevenson  'The precision of a neat draftsman', wrote Pollock, 'has never been counted among      Brett MR's  accomplishments  2 '24 As I have indicated, the other two sources for Lord Atkin's neighbour principle were the judgment of Benjamin Cardozo in the New York Court of Appeals in MacPherson v Buick and Lord Atkin's own reading of the Gospels  Whatever the Judges in England thought about Brett MR's decision in Heaven v Pender, Justice Cardozo, sitting in New York in 1916, liked it  The MacPherson case involved a defective car with wooden wheels  One of the wheels fell to bits, the car collapsed and the Claimant driver was thrown out of the car and suffered injury  It may not be 21 lbid, at p 516  22  1932  AC 562, 576  23 lbid, at pp 581   582  24 Pollock, F 'The Snail in the Bottle and Thereafter' (1933) 49 LQR 22, 25  9 wholly irrelevant to the outcome of the case that, at the time that this happened, the Claimant was driving a sick neighbour to hospital  The Claimant had purchased his car from a retailer who had, in turn, sourced the car from a manufacturer  The Claimant sued the manufacturer with whom he had no contract  Justice Cardozo recognised Brett MR's formula as the concise expression of the 'tests and standards' of US law (at least in New York State)  He therefore resuscitated the Heaven v Pender formula as a statement of general principle capable of practical application (an approach which stood in very marked contrast to the manner in which this judgment was treated on the British side of the Atlantic)  Justice Cardozo stated that the application of this principle would be justified where  (1) the nature of an article or object would, if negligently made, be reasonably certain to endanger life or limb  (2) such danger was accompanied by knowledge that the article would be used by persons other than the immediate purchaser  (3) the manufacturer of the finished article or object, placed on the market, must fail in his duty of inspection  and, (4) the ultimate user of the article must have no opportunity of examination or inspection of the finished article before using it (and the manufacturer should know that the article will be used 'without new tests' by the ultimate consumer)  If these conditions were satisfied then 'the manufacturer of this thing of danger is under a duty to make it carefully ' It would be a question of fact in each case whether the necessary element of danger was present  Justice Cardozo managed to persuade most of his judicial colleagues to side with him in the outcome of MacPherson v Buick against the Chief Justice of the Court of Appeals who dissented  He had no time for those, like the Chief Justice, who argued that case law concerning the danger, or otherwise, of horse drawn carriages could be applied to the brave new world of the motor car  'Precedents drawn from the days of travel by stage coach do not fit the conditions of travel to  day ' By 1916, when the MacPherson case was decided by the Court of Appeals, the people of New York had new, and faster, modes of transport and, by implication, they needed new legal principles to apply to the accidents which they caused as well  10 10 Finally, as a source of the neighbour principle, the Parable of the Good Samaritan  In the Gospel of St Luke the Good Samaritan teaching is introduced by a conversation between Jesus and a cunning lawyer  The lawyer seeks to catch Jesus out by asking him the beguilingly simple, but rather abstract question, 'Who is my neighbour ' The lawyer knew that Jesus lacked the formal biblical education that he had enjoyed and his intention was clearly to tempt an answer which was inconsistent with Scripture  In fact, Jesus avoided the trap by means of the Good Samaritan parable with its message of compassion towards strangers and its central teaching that those who were leaders of the community the Priest and the Levite   showed less kindness than the suspicious foreigner, the Samaritan (a heretic), who came to the aid of the man fallen among thieves and who had spent two pence on his care  The core message of the Good Samaritan story that kindness should prevail over code (if you like, over precedent) may provide a convenient metaphor for what Lord Atkin was trying to do in his formulation of the neighbour principle    Lord Atkin's extra judicial writing and lecturing proves that he was thinking a good deal about the connection between conventional Christian morality and the law of tort in the years which preceded the Lords decision in Donoghue v Stevenson  In 1930 he delivered a lecture at the University of Birmingham in which, while acknowledging that law and morality are not synonymous, he also made clear his view that English law set up a high, but attainable, standard of honesty and fair  dealing to which the commercial community, in particular, were expected to adhere  Lord Atkin deployed the example of the honest contract maker who 'swears unto his neighbour and disappointeth him not' as a person commended by the law and whose standards were enforced by the law of contract  By the time that Lord Atkin delivered a further lecture this time at King's College, London a year later the honest contract maker had been joined by another exemplar of virtue  the moral actor who seeks to avoid injuring his neighbours by acts of negligence  'I doubt', Lord Atkin said to his audience of law students, 'whether the whole law of tort could not be comprised in the golden maxim to do unto your neighbour as you would that he should do unto you ' The neighbour principle was clearly just a refinement of this universal, moral proposition      11 The House of Lords famously split 3 2 in Mrs Donoghue's case  The late Professor Heuston, an Irishman, who lectured me when I was of an even more impressionable age referred to a 'celtic majority' in the Lords on the grounds that Lord Atkin was an Australian who considered himself a Welshman and Lords Macmillan and Thankerton were both Scottish  Lord Buckmaster, who had served as Lord Chancellor and was resolutely English, delivered the leading dissenting speech  His contribution has been described as having an 'almost passionate sarcasm' and there is certainly something very close to suppressed outrage in his treatment of the decision in Heaven v Pender in particular  Lord Buckmaster called this a 'plank in a shipwreck' seized upon by those presumably Lord Atkin, among others who sought to extend the law of negligence in the face of what Lord   Buckmaster regarded as overwhelming authority to the contrary  As I have indicated, Lord Atkin was joined in the majority by Lord Macmillan who delivered a lengthy speech containing, among other things, an aphorism which has become almost as famous as the neighbour principle  'The categories of negligence are never closed ' We know a good deal about the character and thoughts of Lords Atkin and Macmillan because both wrote autobiographies  Lord Atkin never completed and never published his book, but a draft can be read in the Atkin archive at Gray's Inn  In 1952 Lord Macmillan's autobiography was published posthumously 'A Man of Law's Tale'  Inner Temple library has a copy and it's an interesting read from a man who was not unaware of his own extraordinary talents  Lord Macmillan clearly loved being a member of the House of Lords and modestly observed in his autobiography that 'I had for some years  before appointment  known that this was to be my ultimate destination ' Of Lord Thankerton the man, we know rather less, although one biographer recorded that, he had a habit of arguing somewhat aggressively with counsel and this did not decrease with the years  It was also said that his habit of knitting while on the bench irritated some counsel '25     Identifying the ratio of Donoghue v Stevenson is not an easy task   even with the benefit of the succinct headnote which appears in the Appeal Cases law report  25 Simpson, AWB (ed) Biographical Dictionary of the Common Law (Butterworths, 1984), p 525  12 It has been suggested that a restrictive reading might confine the significance of the decision to the proposition that there is a duty not to sell opaque bottles of ginger beer containing dead snails to Scottish women  26 Unsurprisingly, commentators have focussed attention on the neighbour principle, but it is questionable whether this forms part of the ratio at all  Lord Atkin could not decide the case by himself and the ratio has, of course, to be found in a reading of all three majority judgments  It is striking that neither Lord Macmillan nor Lord Thankerton make any reference to the neighbour principle or to anything which looks much like it  Lord Thankerton did state that he so entirely agreed with the speech of Lord Atkin that he could not usefully add anything to it, but he was careful to make it clear that this was because of Lord Atkin's treatment of the English case law (rather than because he had been won over to the neighbour principle)  27 Indeed, Lord Thankerton's reasoning was couched in much more limited terms  Lord Macmillan perhaps came a little closer to the neighbour principle in the closing passages of his speech where this appears, 'In the present case the respondent, when he manufactured his ginger  beer, had directly in contemplation that it would be consumed by members of the public  Can it be said that he could not be expected as a reasonable man to foresee that if he conducted his process of manufacture carelessly he might injure those whom he expected and desired to consume his ginger beer '28 However, this is not the neighbour principle in the unexpurgated form apparently advocated by Lord Atkin and taken up in later cases  The principle that a duty of care will exist where a person reasonably foresees that his acts or omissions will be likely to result in damage to another is a more 'restricted' answer to 'the lawyer's question' than can be found in the Lucan Gospel, but it was not sufficiently restricted for even the majority supporting judges in Donoghue v Stevenson  Professor Heuston, writing in 1957, described the ratio in Donoghue v Stevenson in the following, rather conservative, terms  First, negligence is a separate and distinct tort  Second, a contractual relationship between the parties to the action is not a prerequisite for 26 Commentary by Professor Stone in Province and Function of Law, reported by RFV Heuston in 'Donoghue v Stevenson in Retrospect' (1957) 20 MLR 1, 6  27  1932  AC 562, 604  28 lbid, at p 620  13 liability in tort  Third, and finally, manufacturers of products owe a duty of care to the person who ultimately consumes or uses the product  The neighbour principle might not   strictly speaking have formed part of the ratio of Donoghue v Stevenson, but it can fairly safely be said that it is the reason why we are still talking about the case why I am delivering this lecture today  Unleashed upon a common law world that was clearly ready for it, the neighbour principle drove the development of the modern law of negligence  Expansions and contractions of the duty of care in negligence and applications of the tort to new factual situations in the decades since 1932 are measured against Donoghue v Stevenson and Lord Atkin's neighbour principle in particular  The speeches in the House of Lords were delivered on 26 May 1932 and by March the following year, Mr Justice Evatt of the Australian High Court was writing to Lord Atkin to congratulate him on, as he put it, both reflecting modern industrial conditions and aligning the law of England, Scotland and, therefore, the wider empire with that of the USA, as reflected in the MacPherson judgment of Justice Cardozo 29 Perhaps it was, above all, the language with which the Law Lords expressed themselves that secured lasting fame for Donoghue v Stevenson  The issues at stake in the case were of huge importance and the Judges' phrase making matched this importance  Lord Atkin's speech blends an appeal to common sense and popular conceptions of morality with high principle, legal precedent and New Testament allusion  a heady mixture  Overturning decades even centuries   of contrary authority was likely to require the winning of hearts and minds and Lord Atkin's successful attempt to capture the imagination by expressing himself in a manner that would seem unusual today   let alone in 1932   clearly did the trick  Lord Macmillan also rose to the challenge and devised new ways of expressing what might be regarded as a more conventional approach to the expansion of the duty of care  Lord Buckmaster's dissenting speech was also couched in unusually powerful terms  Indeed, the passion of his own views and the intemperate contempt that he expressed for the contrary position did, perhaps, as much to underline the 29 Atkin archive  File reference ATK1 JUD 1 1  14 importance of what the House of Lords was deciding as anything else  The radicalism of the neighbour principle was illuminated by the outrage of those, like Lord Buckmaster, whose more orthodox views it challenged  Within a few short years, the language of Lords Atkin, Macmillan and Buckmaster had become common currency throughout the jurisdictions of the British Empire where, in a number of instances, precocious expansions of the duty of care in negligence significantly exceeded post Donoghue v Stevenson developments in the Mother country  As early as 1933 the distinguished legal historian and academic Sir Frederick Pollock was warning, in the Law Quarterly Review about 'the untenable exaggeration of the rule in the Snail's Case' by 'adventurous counsel and over  ingenious teachers of law  '30 Pollock's warning about what he preferred to call   as a man who probably read seventeenth century law reports in his spare time   the 'Snail's Case' was prescient  By 1932 the conservative centre of the law of negligence, struggling under the weight of twentieth century industrial conditions, could not hold  As a result of the House of Lords the genie   and the snail were out of the bottle  It is tempting to speculate why Mrs Donoghue's case was taken to the House of Lords given the unpromising outcome in the Court of Session and the weight of precedent, including the mouse cases, which Lord Buckmaster later deployed  The son of her solicitor believes that his father would have met Mrs Donoghue before taking on her case and would have persuaded himself of the veracity of her factual account before deciding that an injustice had been done to her and that this required a remedy  It appears to have been felt that Mrs Donoghue would stand a better chance in London than she had in Edinburgh and her solicitor's son has said in correspondence that, 'My father did not have such a high opinion of the Scottish judges of the time, even in the Appeal Court here  He felt that the judges in the House of Lords, being English and Scottish and using 'equity' as part of their base would be more equitable in their decision  '31 In fact, as we have seen, a Welsh Australian and two Scots did much more to assist Mrs Donoghue than the 30 Pollock, F 'The Snail in the Bottle and Thereafter' (1933) 49 LQR 22, 26  31 I See, Taylor, M 'The Good Neighbour on Trial  a Message from Scotland' (1983) 17 UBC Law Review 59, 64  15 Englishmen who also heard the appeal  Equity had little to do with it  However revolutionary it might have appeared to commentators and certainly to Lord Buckmaster, Lord Atkin's neighbour principle was almost self consciously placed by the Judge in the line of existing authority  As we have seen, after asking himself, 'Who, then, in law is my neighbour ', Lord Atkin immediately says, 'The answer seems to be      emphasis added '  in doing so, he surely acknowledges the judicial and other sources of authority for the answer that the neighbour principle provides  As a result of the decision of the House of Lords the judgment of Lord Moncrieff, sitting at first instance in the Court of Session, was restored  Mrs Donoghue had established her case in law  The Paisley and Renfrewshire Gazette, describing Mrs Donoghue as Mrs Macalister (her maiden name), succinctly reported the outcome of proceedings in the House of Lords as 'Appeal allowed  Snail in Ginger Beer Case'  In order to succeed in her action Mrs Donoghue would now need to prove her factual case  the presence of the snail in the bottle  the negligence of Mr Stevenson  the illness that she had suffered by consuming the snail flavoured ginger beer  Mr Stevenson's involvement in the action can be traced to the actions of the somewhat mysterious friend with whom Mrs Donoghue was in the cafe  We know from the pleadings that, after Mrs Donoghue saw the decomposed snail and apparently suffered the violent reaction that the pleading describes, her friend identified the name and address of David Stevenson from the label pasted on the side of the ginger beer bottle (the unidentified friend may justifiably be regarded as the key player in the litigation)  On all the matters raised by Mrs Donoghue and her legal team Mr Stevenson, for his part, had joined issue in his pleading before the legal point had been hived off for preliminary determination  He vigorously denied that any bottle manufactured by his factory contained a snail  It was denied that Mr Stevenson's business had ever issued a bottle of ginger beer of the description given by Mrs Donoghue  A trial in the Court of Session would determine whose version of events was correct  This was scheduled to take place in January 1933 32 32 Interlocutor of 4 November 1932, as reported in McBryde, WM 'Donoghue v Stevenson  the Story of the  Snail in the Bottle  Case' in Gamble, AJ (ed) Obligations in Context (W Green, 1990), p 26, n 23  16 Nearly a decade later, in wartime, Lord Justice MacKinnon was invited to give an after dinner speech to the law students at the University of Birmingham (he was the President of their Holdsworth Club)  The speech was originally scheduled for May 1942, but was postponed for reasons related to the war effort  A copy of the speech appears in Lord Atkin's papers at Gray's Inn  33 The speech was, perhaps, prepared for a well oiled audience (in need of some cheering up), 'Not for me to expound the implications of Donoghue v Stevenson  To be quite candid, I detest that snail  I think that my friend, Lord President Normand, explained to you that the problem in the case arose on a plea of relevancy   the Scots equivalent of a demurrer  I think that he did not reveal to you that when the law had been settled by the House of Lords, the case went back to Edinburgh to be tried on the facts  And at that trial it was found that there never was a snail in the bottle at all  That intruding gastropod was a legal fiction      ' Lord President Normand was, of course, the former Solicitor General for Scotland who had appeared as leading counsel for Mr Stevenson before the House of Lords  Lord Justice MacKinnon's revelation probably went down well with his audience of law students  However, it was also noticed by Lord Atkin who was obviously diverting himself with some recreational reading during the long vacation of 1942 and so had a copy of the speech  He sent the speech to Lord Macmillan who, following the thread back to the man who was there at the time, wrote to Normand (enclosing a copy of MacKinnon's speech)  He received the following reply dated 19 September 1942  'My dear Macmillan, I have not yet seen MacKinnon's address to the Holdsworth Club  His account, as you report it, of Donoghue v Stevenson is not accurate  The case never went to trial  I speak from recollection, but I think it can be trusted, and what I remember is that the defender died soon after the HL decided the point of relevancy  The pursuer did not move to 33 File reference ATK1 JUD 1 1  17 have the defender's executors sisted as a party and there were no further proceedings  So much for the sake of history ' '34 Normand's recollection of the chronology was correct  On 12 November 1932, by which time the case was back in the Court of Session awaiting trial (proof), David Stevenson died  In a 1990 article Professor McBryde states that, 'A year elapsed and David Stevenson's executors were sisted as parties to the case which then settled '35 Lord Macmillan sent Normand's letter on to Lord Atkin and added the following note in his cover letter of 21 September 1942  'My dear Atkin, I, too, was struck by that statement in MacKinnon's Holdsworth Club address  I was sure it was wrong  Before answering your letter, however, I wrote to Normand in order to verify my impression, and this morning I have a letter from him of which I enclose a copy  You may take it as quite certain that the case never went to trial  Whether there was or was not a snail in the bottle must remain one of history's unsolved problems   136 An article published in October 1955 in the Law Quarterly Review suggests that a myth had grown up that there was no snail in the bottle  37 Indeed, in a 1954 decision of the Court of Appeal (in the form of a Practice Note) Lord Justice Jenkins, ignorant of the private correspondence referred to above, stated confidently, '    the House of Lords heard the preliminary issue in Donoghue v Stevenson     and when the trial was heard there was no snail in the bottle at all '38 Mr Ashton Cross, the author of the Law Quarterly Review article, was keen to set the record straight and corresponded with the solicitors for Mr Stevenson who informed him of the death of the Defendant and the subsequent settlement by his executors  The answer, therefore, to the question what really happened in the caf is that we will never know  There was no trial  No witnesses gave evidence  No McBryde, WM 'Donoghue v Stevenson  the Story of the  Snail in the Bottle  Case' in Gamble, AJ (ed) 34 lbid  35 36 Atkin archive  File reference ATK1 JUD 1 1  Obligations in Context (W Green, 1990), p 26  37 Ashton Cross, D 'Donoghue v Stevenson  1932  AC 562' (1955) 71 LQR 472  38 Adler v Dickson   anor  1954  1 WLR 1482, 1483 (CA)  18 decision on the alleged facts was ever reached  A factual determination and, perhaps, a snail are missing  It does, at least, seem clear that there was a settlement  Professor McBryde records that the settlement sum was 100, although he acknowledges that it is difficult to be accurate about this  39 McBryde's source for the settlement sum was Professor Heuston and he, in turn, heard about it from Lord Macmillan 40 who, one presumes, would have been told by Lord Normand  Lord Rodger was told by Mrs Donoghue's grandson that it was believed that the settlement sum was 500 (the sum claimed in the proceedings), 41 although this may be an exaggeration  In fact, a more accurate account of the settlement might have been provided by the son of Mrs Donoghue's solicitor who, for the purposes of an article published by the Canadian Judge, Mr Justice Taylor, in 1983, stated that he believed the sum paid by the executors of the estate to have been 200 42 While, by contrast to her lawyers, Mrs Donoghue never had her day in court, she achieved what would at the time have been a significant sum (particularly to someone suing, as she did, in pauperis)  Wellmeadow Street in Paisley is still there  Prior to 1990 the site of the cafe was waste ground  43 a metaphor, perhaps, for the factual void which lies at the heart of the case  Between 28 and 30 September 1990 a conference on the law of negligence was organised in Paisley by the Canadian Bar Association, the Faculty of Advocates, the Law Society of Scotland and the Old Paisley Society  The conference was entitled, 'The Pilgrimage to Paisley  a Salute to Donoghue v Stevenson' and the conference programme records that, between 4 05 pm and 4 30 pm, the delegates paraded, to the accompaniment of pipers, to Wellmeadow Street  There are photographs in the Paisley library archive of them doing so (well wrapped up for Paisley's late September weather)  At the site of the Caf a memorial park and 39 McBryde, WM 'Donoghue v Stevenson  the Story of the  Snail in the Bottle  Case  in Gamble, AJ (ed) Obligations in Context (W Green, 1990), p 26, n 26 citing Heuston, RFV 'Donoghue v Stevenson in Retrospect' (1957) 20 MLR 1, 2  40 Heuston, RFV 'Donoghue v Stevenson in Retrospect' (1957) 20 MLR 1, 2, n 5  41 Rodger, A 'Mrs Donoghue and Alfenus Varus' (1988) 41 CLP 1, 9, n 98 referring to a letter of 24 July 1973 which he had received from Thomas Donoghue  42 Taylor, M 'The Good Neighbour on Trial  a Message from Scotland' (1983) 17 UBC Law Review 59, 65  43 See report in The Paisley Express for 31 August 1988, 'And all because of a drink ' 19 garden were formally dedicated  The afternoon's events concluded with a tea of ice cream and ginger beer  In August 2008, some 80 years (nearly to the day) after Mrs Donoghue's journey, I made my own pilgrimage to Paisley, taking the train there from Glasgow on a damp afternoon  The memorial park is still at the corner of Lady Lane and   Wellmeadow Street and is overlooked, from the other side of the road, by the Thomas Coats Memorial Church  The memorial stands alongside a busy road   Wellmeadow Street between two derelict buildings  an abandoned bingo hall and what was once a chapel  The somewhat melancholy scene and weather were complemented by a funeral which was taking place at the adjacent co operative society funeral service  In the small park itself, there is a wooden bench, donated by the Canadian Bar and constructed of Canadian Cedar wood, with decorative, snail  shaped roundels  A rectangular marble stone is finished with a metal plate on each side recording the allegations made in the case and the decision in the House of Lords  Lord Atkin's neighbour principle is, of course, directly referenced  It may seem odd that, 1990, the location was marked of an otherwise undistinguished and long demolished cafe where something of factual significance may or may not have happened  But the point is, however, that something significant did emerge from Wellmeadow Street and Mrs Donoghue had to travel there from Glasgow in order for this to happen  The issues raised by Donoghue v Stevenson aroused strong passions at the time that it was decided  It is only necessary to read the speech of Lord Buckmaster to realise this  As we have seen, the drive to limit the potential universality of Lord Atkin's neighbour principle began almost immediately  Even those who expressed a grudging admiration for what the majority had decided in Donoghue v Stevenson were keen to make it clear that there had to be limits  'The decision in the Donoghue case was one of good sense and social necessity, but social necessity and good sense require some limits  '44 More recently, discussions about the proper reach of the law of negligence have resulted in Parliamentary debate and the WEP 'Torts   Negligence   Duty of Care   Liability of Contractor to Third Person' (1935) 13 44 DeRoche, Can B Rev 112, 114  20 20 passing of legislation seeking to influence the standard of care applied by the courts in certain areas of social activity  45 However, the neighbour principle, whether or not it forms part of the ratio of the majority decision in Donoghue v Stevenson, has proved stubbornly resistant to constraint and restriction  In the decades which have now passed since 1932 it has inspired many efforts to extend the reach of the law of negligence to areas previously untouched by it  Not all of the advances made have proved to be permanent, but Donoghue v Stevenson continues to be taught to law students and continues to be cited in important cases  It is simply, always there, framing the terms of the debate  As I have indicated, Donoghue v Stevenson in the House of Lords is a case of metaphors and aphorisms  While Lord Macmillan and Lord Buckmaster's speeches have attracted interest and scholarship, it is Lord Atkin's speech that excites most lawyers  The singular ambition of his opinion, the energy with which it was expressed and the eloquent use of metaphor and Biblical allusion all helped to ensure that it was Lord Atkin's neighbour principle that emerged as the greatest gift given by English Scots law to the wider common law world  The neighbour principle was the thread which enabled the tort of negligence to escape the labyrinthine complexity of the law prior to 1932 and also provided patterns for the development of negligence over the decades that followed  More than that, however, Lord Atkin's neighbour principle a careful recital of the role and limits of morality (even of kindness) in our law of obligations   reminds us why the law of negligence is important and why it is still needed today  45 Compensation Act 2006 which received the Royal Assent on 25 July 2006  For an article by one of those who advised on the draft legislation, see  Parker, A 'Changing the Claims Culture' (2006) 156 NLJ 702  21 119 Chancery Lane, London WC2A 1PP Tel  020 7242 6471 Fax  020 7831 5247 Email  postmaster iclr co uk Registered in England as a Charity No  250605 Limited by Guarantee   Company Registered No  5034 Vat No  GB232 3909 76 iclr co uk

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