Price discrimination is common in healthcare, as well as other industries. Price discrimination can increase profits. Read case study below.

Economics for Healthcare Managers Robert H. Lee What American Airlines, Walgreens, Staples, Stanford University, AT&T, the Mayo Clinic, and Safeway have in common? They all price discriminate (ValentinoDevries, Singer-Vine, and Soltani 2012). They charge different customers different amounts for the same product. Pharmaceutical discounts are the clearest examples of healthcare price discrimination because the products are identical. Only the prices differ. A cash customer (e.g., someone without insurance coverage) would pay the highest price, the list price. Most customers pay less than list price. Insurers negotiate discounts with manufacturers and pharmacies. These discounts are typically about 30 percent (Herper 2012). Some Hospitals and HMOs have their own pharmacies and can negotiate even better deals with manufacturers. These organizations sometimes pay as little as 40 percent of current list price. Most discounts come in the form of rebates, meaning that a purchaser pays the list price up front but gets a payment from that seller later. This process makes resale more difficult and limits price transparency (Morgan, Daw, and Thompson 2013) The federal government has multiple discount programs. The largest is the Medicaid rebate program, which requires manufacturers to pay a rebate that varies by the type of drug. Prices, formularies and copayments vary from state to state, so whether the Medicaid rebate program covers the most effective medications or gets the best prices is not clear (Millar et al. 2011). Many federally funded clinics and hospitals are eligible for the Medicaid discount. However these agencies can often negotiate better deals because they can buy wholesale and because they can choose drugs for their formularies. Tribal and territorial governments can use the prices on the Federal Supply Schedule, which federal agencies use to buy common supplies and services. The Department of Defense, the Department of Veteran Affairs (VA), the Public Health Service, and the Coast Guard may get prices that are slightly lower than the Federal Supply Schedule because of a provision called the federal ceiling price. This provision caps the price using a formula based on private-sector transactions. Finally, these agencies can try to negotiate prices below the federal ceiling price. The VA, which uses a national formulary, has used its bargaining power to get substantially better prices. Frakt, Pizer, and Feldman (2012) report that the VA's prices are 37 to 44 percent lower than Medicare prices.

Include evidence on price discrimination and address the following questions:

• Why do drug firms give discounts voluntarily?
• Do other healthcare providers routinely give discounts to some customers?
• Why do the uninsured typically pay the highest prices?
• Why would a hospital usually get a better price for a drug than an insurance company?
• Why does the VA get such low prices?
• Suppose a law was enacted that required drug manufacturers to give state Medicaid agencies the same price they negotiated with the VA. How would Medicaid and VA prices change?
• Should Medicare adopt the VA formulary?