Qualitative Design Selection and Alignment

1. Action Research

The purpose of this section is to describe the implementation of action research. This design, which is often associated with education or healthcare research, allows the researcher to seek solutions to an organizational problem or a broader societal problem collaboratively with the members of the organization under study. There are four different approaches to action research which are color coded throughout this document: Action research (AR), Participative research (PR), Participative action research (PAR), and Technical action research (TAR). For the basic action research (AR) design the participants are usually limited to the management team; for PR the participants are those directly involved in the process; for PAR the participants are often intrateam representatives from throughout the organization. This section should also describe appropriate data collection and analysis. The researcher role within AR is to collaborate with organizational leadership to lead data collection based on available data and management interviews, analyze the current process, recommend specific changes, implement the changes, and evaluate the results. Within participative research (PR) the role of the researcher is to develop understanding based on the tacit knowledge of the employees and managers. Data are collected via interviews and archival documentation, evaluated, and reduced to clear information such as process flows and communication flow diagrams. The researcher shares the information with the employees and managers to facilitate collaborative change recommendations. Participative action research (PAR) requires the researcher and employees to collaboratively resolve a major organizational problem or address an organizational level decision; the results of PAR are designed to influence policy and practice. Examples of PAR include tiger teams or blue-ribbon panels in which participants who are impacted by the problem are brought together from across the organization to creatively address a systemic issue by planning and implementing the change. The researcher shares control of the process design with the employees. Technical action research (TAR) is collaborative in that the researcher collaborates with the leadership or process owner, but the research typically does not include collaboration with other organizational employees. In this approach the research objectives are developed by the organization or by an external facilitator rather than by the researcher. The researcher shares the information with the leadership; however, the primary objective is to create or test a theory and publish the findings such as within a doctoral dissertation. The discussion below describes how to implement each approach when developing the various sections of a dissertation. Defining and implementing action research further describes the objective and implementation of action research. Problem Statement: Discuss what problem will be addressed by the research. Since action research is typically based on the needs of a single organization rather than a broad issue, it is acceptable to cite the organizational leadership as "personal communication" (see p. 179 of the APA manual). In contrast, participative action research (PAR) may be focused on a broader societal issue rather than an organization specific problem, and technical action research (TAR) focuses on a broad social science issue in order to develop or test a theory. Purpose Statement:

The purpose statement should outline the method (qualitative) and design, such as action research, participative research, or participatory action research. Describe the research participants, your role in the research, and their role in the research. The purpose statement also should state the objectives, and the objectives must align with the design. Action research (AR) focuses on improving organizational procedures from a process- oriented perspective; the goal is to collaborate with the leadership or process owner to improve a process from an advisor perspective before, during, and after the process change. Participative research (PR) includes creation of knowledge based on the tacit knowledge of employees and managers involved in the process; the focus is inclusion of the participants. Implementation of a PR design requires researcher and employee commitment during the project to collaboratively address a problem. The researcher enables the participants to "solve their own problems" (Elden, Reason, & Rowan, 1981, p. 259).

Participative action research (PAR) requires the researcher and employees to collaboratively resolve a major organizational problem or address an organizational level decision; the results of PAR are designed to influence policy and practice. Examples of PAR include tiger teams or blue-ribbon panels in which participants who are impacted by the problem are brought together from across the organization to creatively address a systemic issue by planning and implementing the change. The researcher shares control of the process design with the employees.

Technical action research (TAR) focuses on a broad social science issue in order to develop or test a theory. Rather than primarily focusing on improving a process used byan organization, the principal intent of PAR is to add to the body of knowledge.

Significance of the Study

Describe how changing the process, addressing the problem, or influencing the organizational policy and practice might benefit the organization. For PAR the resultant change may have a larger societal impact or may be transferable to societal issues. For TAR studies the resultant recommendations should have a potential societal impact.

Research Methodology

All action research approaches are typically qualitative. Discuss use of the qualitative method and the specific action research design to be used.

Research Questions

As a qualitative study research questions must be included, but hypotheses should not be included. Example research questions for Action Research (AR): Since AR includes assessment before, during, and after the process change, appropriate research question might include:

R1. What factors are contributing to the process issues?

R2. What changes can be implemented to create prospective process improvement?

R3. What were the impacts of the implemented changes?

Example research questions for Participative Research (PR): Since PR is limited to the planning and implementation phase and collaborates with the employees and managers, appropriate research question might include:

R1. What are the process owners'/managers' perceptions of factors contributing to the process issues?

R2. What are the employees' perceptions of factors contributing to the process issues?

R3. What changes can be implemented to create prospective process improvement while best meeting the needs of employees? Example research questions for Participative Action Research (PAR):

Since PAR is limited to the planning and implementation phase, and collaborates with the employees and managers to resolve a major organizational problem or address an organizational level decision and influence policy and practice, appropriate research question might include:

R1. What are the process owners'/managers' perceptions of factors contributing to the issue?

R2. What are the potential impacts to the organization issues?

R3. What are the potential benefits and challenges of each option for addressing the issue, and which option might produce the optimal results?

R4. What policy and practice changes must be implemented to facilitate the selected option, what is the expected outcome for the organization, and is the solution transferable to broader societal issues?

Example research questions for Technical Action Research (TAR): Since TAR usually relies on research objectives developed externally and focuses on a broad social science issue to develop or test a theory and add to the body of knowledge, appropriate research question might include: R1. What are the stakeholder's research objectives or theory to be tested?

R2. How can these objectives be met, or how can this theory be tested within the participating organization?

R3. How might the results be used to improve the participating organization? R4. How are the results transferable to the broader societal issue, and how do the results contribute to the body of knowledge?

2. Appreciative Inquiry

Appreciative inquiry (AI) is a change management approach that is typically conducted in organizations. Therefore, this design is typically associated with the DM or DBA programs, but this design can be accomplished within other institutions such as healthcare or educational institutions. AI is an organizational improvement approach that focuses on the positive aspects of the organization rather than directly attempting to address and resolve existing problems. This design was originally developed and discussed in an article by Cooperrider and Srivastva (1987). AI can be used to improve current processes or organizations or to generate new ideas and recommendations for the organization under study. Note that the positive approach of implementing the AI design for addressing organizational problems has an important benefit in gaining the organization's approval for conducting the research. Organizational stakeholders are more likely to allow researchers to conduct a study designed to improve a process or an organization than to examine an existing organization issue, such as using a case study approach to investigate a problem. According to Kessler (2013), Cooperrider's "4D" AI model involves four phases. During the discovery phase the researcher collects participant's reflections and stories regarding the positive aspects of the organizational process under study. The second phase, dream, is a collaborative effort to imagine an idealized state. This step often involves development of a graphical representation. The third phase, design, involves realistic planning of the steps required to attain the vision created in phase two. The destiny phase focuses on developing a set of recommendations for practitioners and leaders based on the collection and analysis of employees', stakeholders', and the researcher's organizational process improvement insights. The following links provide information and videos that introduce appreciative inquiry: Introduction to appreciative inquiry Cooperrider videos Problem Statement Discuss the organizational deficit to be addressed by the study. If the purpose is to generate new ideas and recommendations for the organization under study, then discuss the process or section that requires improvement. Since this application is typically based on the needs of a single organization rather than a broad issue it is acceptable to cite the organizational leadership as "personal communication" (see p. 179 of the APA manual). If the proposed improvements can be implemented across the industry, then discuss the industry-wide deficit as the problem. Purpose Statement The purpose statement should state that the method is qualitative, and the design is appreciative inquiry. The purpose statement also should state the objectives of the research such as to examine the current processes and recommend improvements. This section should also state the type of organization or institution, the program objectives, and participants or stakeholders involved in the current processes. Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of the proposed organizational change such as to create efficiencies, reduce operational costs, increase customer and/or employee satisfaction, or create improved organizational outcomes. Proposed Research Methodology The appreciative inquiry design is typically associated with the qualitative method but may be conducted as qualitative supported by quantitative data if quantitative data will also be collected and analyzed.

Research Questions

Example AI research questions might focus on the first three phases of the 4D model, such as:

• R1. What are stakeholders' reflections and stories regarding the positive aspects of the current organizational process?
• R2. What idealized future state do stakeholders envision?
• R3. What steps are required to attain the vision?

Note that the fourth phase of the 4D model, destiny, will be discussed in chapter 5 of the dissertation. Therefore, it is not necessary to include an explicit research question to address this final phase.

3. Case Study

A case study involves extensive exploration of a bounded case, which can be defined as a specific organization, situation, or process. The researcher must be able to clearly define and create limits around the subject to be studied (Merriam, 1998). As Merriam (1998) pointed out, "A case study design is employed to gain an in-depth understanding of the situation and meaning for those involved. The interest is in process rather than outcomes, in context rather than a specific variable, in discovery rather than confirmation" (p. 19). Three of the most prominent case study methodologists are Robert Yin, Robert Stake, and Sharan Merriam. Researchers using the case study design should become familiar with and cite the work of all three authors. Yin Stake and Merriam case study differentiation discusses the various perspectives of the three theorists in designing and implementing a case study. Case studies include two unique requirementsthey must include a type and they must be supported by multiple sources of evidence. These two requirements are described below. Multiple sources. The multiple sources requirement may be fulfilled using two or more of the six sources defined by Yin (2009):

Documentation

Archival records

Interviews

Direct observations

Participant-observations

Physical artifacts

It is important to keep in mind that the multiple sources of data must not only be collected; they must also be analyzed and triangulated to create the results in Chapter 4. Case study sources of evidence by Yin provides additional information on sources of evidence. Optionally, the multiple sources may be obtained using a stratified sample from two of more different populations of participants. For example, an educational research may involve perspectives from a sample of teachers, a sample of administrators, and a sample of parents. These data sources must be triangulated during data analysis phase to view the bounded case from various perspectives. Single case studies, defined as a study of a single individual, are incapable of providing conclusions beyond the individual under study (Tellis, 1997). Note that a single case study is not considered a rigorous enough design for a dissertation. Case study types. Yin (2009) defined the three most common types of case studies: explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive. Stake (1994) additionally defined three types: intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. These six types are briefly defined below. Although these are the most commonly used types other types may be used. Explanatory. An explanatory case study design is used to explain why a phenomenon occurs. In explanatory case studies, the focus is to explore phenomena in real-world settings (Yin, 2009). Exploratory. An exploratory case study is a technique used to collect more in- depth data about what is occurring. Exploratory case studies are used to explore phenomena where no defined outcomes are foreseeable (Yin, 2009). Descriptive. Descriptive case studies are based upon an already established theory. In descriptive case studies, a population is examined and data collected about that population, which is compared to a theory supporting the phenomenon being observed (Yin, 2009).

Intrinsic. Stake (1994) defined an intrinsic study as focused on examining a particular case because the case itself is of interest. Instrumental. The goal of an instrumental case study is to provide insight into an issue or problem or to enhance an existing theory (Stake, 1994). Collective. In a collective case study several cases are examined in order to understand a problem, phenomenon, or situation (Stake, 1994). Review information on case studies and select a specific type of case study. See the following: Case study information - Tellis volume 1 Case study design and Implementation - Baxter and Jack Problem Statement Discuss the existing issue within the bounded case to be addressed by the study. If the purpose is to generate new ideas and recommendations for the organization under study, then discuss the process or section that requires improvement. Since this application is typically based on the needs of a single organization rather than a broad issue it is acceptable to cite the organizational leadership as "personal communication" (see p. 179 of the APA manual). If the proposed improvements can be implemented across the industry, then discuss the industry-wide deficit as the problem. Purpose Statement In addition to stating that the method is qualitative, the purpose section of a case study must describe both the type of case study and the multiple sources of evidence to be used. The purpose statement also should state the objectives of the research such as to examine a specific situation within an organization or institution. Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of the proposed study such as to explore the situation in order to make recommendations for improvement. Proposed Research Methodology Case studies are typically associated with the qualitative method but may be conducted as qualitative supported by quantitative data if quantitative data will also be collected and analyzed. Research Questions The research questions should reflect the multiple sources of data. For example, when using a stratified sample and archival documents:

R1. What are school administrators' perceptions of the high absenteeism in high school?

R2. What are teachers' perceptions of the situation under study?

R3. What are parents' perceptions of the situation under study?

R4. Based on documentation, how has the situation changed during the 2018-2019 school year?

4. Delphi Method Technique

The Delphi technique can be used to forecast a future state within the technology industry, to gain consensus on industry best practices, or to examine healthcare experts' opinion on health and disease trends. Therefore, design can be particularly useful for DM/IST, DM, or DHA research. This technique was developed in in 1950s by the RAND Corporation to forecast the impact of technology. See RAND corporation Delphi information. Student should also review Nominal Group Technique (NGT) when contemplating Delphi to ensure alignment to the appropriate technique. NGT is best for working on best practices whereas most Delphi studies focus on forecasting future solutions. A key element of this design is that it relies on a panel of subject matter experts. Although this design was originally created for face-to-face interaction between the panel members, current studies typically use a modified Delphi in which the expert panel are geographically dispersed and do not interact directly. The researcher facilitates a two to three-round iterative process to collect and analyze the experts' opinions in order to converge on themes, generate statistical agreement data, and reach consensus. The first round involves open-ended questions submitted to the expert panel in order to create a sub-set of common threads, or themes. The second round typically requires the expert panel members to rate the themes on a Likert-type scale in order to identify their level of agreement. The third round, when utilized, is typically another narrative data collection. Delphi rounds discusses the use of the rounds of during data collection and analysis. Problem Statement Discuss the unknown nature of the topic under study. For example, the future technological state is not known, the trend of a healthcare issue is unknown, or best industry practices have not been identified. The unknown nature of the problem must be stated in literature and the problem must be cited. Purpose Statement The purpose statement should specifically state that the objective of the research is to obtain consensus based on industry experts.

Example:

The purpose of the proposed Delphi study will be to gain consensus from a national panel of healthcare experts on strategies to reduce the nursing shortage.

Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of the proposed study such as to develop industry best practices based on expert consensus.

Proposed Research Methodology Delphi studies are often associated with the qualitative method but since Round 2 involves a Likert-type scale data collection and analysis this design may be referred to as qualitative supported by quantitative data.

Research Questions

The research questions should mirror the purpose. For example:

R1. What are industry experts' best practices in organizational strategic planning? R2. What is the level of consensus between industry experts' best practices in organizational planning?

5. Ethnography

Ethnography involves a systematic study of a culture. The study should reflect the knowledge and social meanings within a cultural group. Typically, this design is associated with sociology, but it may be used to study many issues associated with practitioner degrees such as to study an organizational or classroom culture or to research ethnic cultural norms that impact healthcare decisions. Data collection may entail interviewing participants to collect their cultural perceptions, examining the behavior and interactions between members of the culture, or examining artifacts and documents that convey the culture. Access conducting ethnography for an explanation of the characteristics of ethnographic research and how this design is conducted. Note that autoethnography, a self-reflective sociological study that explores the researcher's personal experience and connects their autobiographical story to wider cultural and social meanings, is not appropriate for the practitioner programs offered at University of Phoenix. Data collection may entail interviewing participants to collect their perceptions regarding their organizational culture, examining the interactions and behavior of the participants, or examining artifacts and documents that convey the organizational culture such as the mission and vision statements and espoused organizational values. Purpose Statement The purpose statement should specifically state that the objective of the research is to explore the problem from a cultural perspective. Significance of the Study Describe the potential benefits of the proposed study such as to improve the understanding of the culture and to provide recommendations that may improve the situation. For example, if the problem is that many African Americans are not obtaining needed mental health care due to a cultural stigma (Alvidrez, Snowden, & Kaiser, 2008), the Significance of the Study should convey that the study will result in recommendations to address and reduce the stigma. Proposed Research Methodology Ethnographic research is typically associated with the qualitative method.

Research Questions

The research questions should reflect a focus on culture.

For example:

R1. What cultural norms result in many African Americans perceiving a stigma associated with mental health assistance?

R2. How are these cultural norms passed down through generations?

R3. How are these cultural norms changing within the generations, if at all?

Assignment

Review the above article and develop a synthesized discussion analyzing the Appropriate sample size, Types of data collected and Examples of a problem for each of the above design method. Provide in-text citation to support your answer.