QUESTION 1; PART A

1. All theories and models in criminology have limitations. The ... model, perceives research to be value free, without biases and it does not assist in seeking alternatives to the present social and economic order.

1. critical

2. positivist

3. classical

4. feminist

2. Criminal behaviour is studied on different levels and dimensions. Aggressiveness and acts of violence fall within the realm of the ... dimension.

1. biological

2. psychological

3. emotional

4. intellectual

3. Which school of thought in criminology advocates that the term 'victim' should be rejected in favour of the term 'survivor'?

1. Positivist

2. Classical

3. Feminist

4. Neo-classical

4. The National Crime Prevention Strategy (1996) highlights specific factors that contribute to crime in South Africa. Which factor refers to the notion that old social control methods were illegal, and that pre-1994 South African society was largely overregulated, undemocratic and unaccountable?

1. Political culture, violence and the destruction of cultural control

2. Socio-psychological factor and the destruction of political control

3. The negotiated transition and the destruction of social control

4. Deprivation because of apartheid and the destruction of economical control

5. Which option represents a limitation of what victim surveys reflect?

1. The number of crimes but not the number of offenders.

2. The number of victims but not the number of crimes.

3. Cultural perceptions as a prominent feature.

4. Accurate and representative crime statistics.

6. The process by which scientists gather information from the external or internal environment and where preferences from previous experiences are widely acknowledged, is known as:

1. Systematic observations

2. Generalised knowledge

3. Prediction accuracy

4. Interpretation value

7. Theories advocate different perspectives. Which option indicates important facts in the development of a theory?

1. The theorist's own social and intellectual environment.

2. The theorist's qualifications and analytical skills.

3. The theorist's research experience and own observations.

4. The theorist's analytical skills and own perceptions.

8. Which option is associated with general factors that contribute to crime in South Africa?

1. Political rivalry as a contributing factor.

2. Political culture, violence and crime.

3. Poor credibility of the courts.

4. Crime and economic development.

9. The premise that certain people are born criminals through the inheritance of a genetic or physiological predisposition to crime, is linked to the ...

1. rational choice perspective.

2. deterministic approach.

3. social learning perspective.

4. biological dimension.14

10. Learned behaviour is associated with ... and is linked to individual risk factors for criminal causation.

1. substance abuse

2. crime

3. socialisation

4. delinquency

11. When a person commits a wrongful act, it is connected to his/her culpable frame of mind. In this regard, deliberate intent and negligence are known as:

1. Two forms of justification.

2. Two forms of explanation.

3. Two forms of guilt.

4. Two forms of remorse.

12. Which theorist determined that the process of moral development is primarily concerned with justice?

1. Bandura

2. Kohlberg

3. Freud

4. Hagan

13. The psychological dimension comprises of three components. The third component is volition and it refers to ...

1. purposeful behaviour or free will.

2. crime that is committed for its benefits.

3. responses evoked from parents and peers.

4. children with behavioural problems.

14. According to the ... model, it is better to let several criminals go free, than to falsely incarcerate innocent people, as individual rights are an important issue.

1. rational thought

2. classical criminology

3. crime control

4. due process

15. The process of motivation is ... driven.

1. thought

2. action

3. need

4. intent

16. In addition to the impact of labelling, what type of impact do physiological disorders have on a person's functioning?

1. Biological and psychological influences on human behaviour.

2. Social and biological influences on human behaviour.

3. Biological and psychosocial influences on human behaviour.

4. Social and psychological influences on human behaviour.

17. Which option explains and controls crime in African states?

1. Positivist criminology

2. Classic criminology

3. Critical criminology

4. Radical criminology

18. Behaviour linked to genetic and environmental factors combined with specific biological, psychological and social processes, and an inability to cope with adverse environmental situations, refers to ... and ... as individual risk factors, associated with criminal causation.

1. intelligence; physical factors

2. mental; physiological disorders

3. personality; temperament

4. biological; physical factors

19. Narrow definitions of conventional concepts, such as "norms", "values", "culture" and "anomie" are questioned by the ... criminological perspective.

1. classical

2. postmodern

3. neo-classical

4. positivistic

20. Research has found that factors such as age composition, urbanisation, household size, ethnic heterogeneity, standard of living and income inequality, have a small and statistically insignificant association with:

1. Culture

2. Race

3. Norms

4. Morals

21. In theory development, providing a meaningful and logically consistent explanation for the relationship between two or more facts, refers to:

1. Plausibility

2. Evidence of validity

3. Falsifiability

4. Predictability

22. Two contrasting models of the criminal justice system include ... and ... and are linked to the classical doctrine.

1. social milieu; social control

2. rational choice; self-control

3. social process; social structure

4. conservatism; liberalism

23. Social surroundings characterised by poverty, unemployment, access to alcohol and drugs, community violence, social disorganisation, overcrowded households and physical deterioration are factors linked to ... risk factors for offending.

1. familial

2. substance abuse

3. socialisation

4. community

24. Who is perceived as the father of American criminology?

1. Edwin Sutherland

2. Cesare Baccaria

3. Cesare Lombrosso

4. Jeremy Bentham

25. The need for an integrated and comprehensive social wellbeing network, that assists families and individuals in need and the need to develop a national plan of action to help families and children, refers to ... as a general factor that contributes to crime in South Africa.

1. inadequate welfare services

2. problems with the criminal justice system

3. the system of migrant labour

4. high levels of unemployment

PART B

1.Critics of ... raised the concern that it is unreasonable to expect people to openly admit to their illegal activities, as they might not only lie about the severity of their acts, but also disregard some of the crimes they have committed.

1. crime mapping

2. personal interviews

3. crime statistics

4. self-report studies

2. Feelings, physiological preparedness, function and expression are four interrelated aspects that are organised and orchestrated by:

1. Needs

2. Emotions

3. Motivation

4. Desires

3. What contributes to the sudden release of large numbers of convicted offenders into the community and increases the chance of reoffending significantly?

1. Poor credibility of the courts

2. Large-scale amnesty

3. Problems with prison sentences

4. Prison overcrowding

4. The ... theory predicts that male and female differences in delinquency are greater in the lower and working classes where patriarchal family systems are most common.

1. general theory of crime

2. power-control

3. rational choice

4. social learning

5. Mental and intellectual events such as beliefs, expectations, thoughts and a self[1]concept often guide and influence a person's way of thinking. This statement refers to:

1. Internal events

2. Needs

3. Cognitions

4. Emotions

6. Which factors are linked to traits, such as low empathy or impulsiveness, that increase the probability of criminal behaviour?

1. Physical and biological

2. Biological and personal

3. Genetic and heredity

4. Individual and physical

7. Which emotion can result in a maladaptive coping reaction to experienced injustices and is known as an aggressive retaliation motive in criminal behaviour? 1. Jealousy

2. Revenge

3. Hopelessness

4. Helplessness

8. The ... system, which promotes the absence of fathers and male role-models in society, has been identified as a contributing factor to crime in South Africa.

1. migrant labour

2. social transformation

3. rapid urbanisation

4. human rights

9. According to ... feminism, the subordination of women is located in the capitalist exploitation of their domestic role, together with a dominant ideology where women are perceived as the primary care-givers within a domestic setting. 1. liberal

2. black

3. socialist

4. Marxist

10. To master the environment and maintain warm relationships, refers to a ... need.

1. biological

2. social

3. psychological

4. materialistic

11. The .... of a theory is the essence and essential arguments that create the framework of a theory.

1. key premise

2. background

3. evaluation

4. predictability

12. Moral reasoning, the mind-set of offenders, self-control and impulsiveness are components of ... associated with crime.

1. environmental influences

2. biological factors

3. social learning aspects

4. social cognition

13. The general theory of crime posits that common characteristics of crime include:

1. Easy and simple satisfaction of desires and needs, immediate gratification and excitement.

2. Delayed gratification and a lot of skill and planning with short-term advantages. 3. Pain and discomfort for perpetrators although crime provides them with immediate satisfaction.

4. Skilled planning and sophisticated acts with long-term advantages.

14. Conklin (2013) identified four types of violent offenders. The culturally violent offenders consist of:

1. Offenders who commit crimes because of psychological abnormalities or mental illness and their crimes are often accompanied by sadism and violence.

2. Offenders without a history of prior offences, who have better school performance records compared to other types of violent offenders and who know their victims.

3. Offenders with limited social skills, opportunities and education are often linked to negative responses such as anger and frustrations towards the community.

4. Offenders who are generally better educated, who commit property-related and economic offences and in some cases, violent offences, in order to benefit financially from their offences.

15. According to the general theory of crime, poor self-control is a prominent factor associated with...

1. poor socialising practices.

2. hereditary factors.

3. poor child-rearing practices.

4. cognitive deficiencies

16. People have limited free will and although they can make choices about their behaviour, these choices are influenced by genetic and environmental factors. This statement relates to:

1. Hard determinism

2. Soft determinism

3. Moral reasoning

4. Locus of control

17. There are various motivation theories which describe and explain human behaviour. Of these motivation theories, which one advocates that rewards and punishment serve to ensure that people act in a particular way?

1. Structure

2. Process

3. Instrumental

4. Content

18. When analysing the classification and measurement of crime, ... is/are used for the classification of crime in South Africa and consists of ... categories.

1. the official crime statistics; 43

2. crime trends; 45

3. crime patterns; 25

4. the code of crime list; 35

19. The first South African criminologists were trained in ... and were influenced by Bonger who ascribed the causes of crime mainly to ... and ...

1. Europe; economic disparities; capitalism.

2. America; ethnic majorities; oppression.

3. Asia; lack of education; marginalisation.

4. Africa; poverty; unemployment.

20. Gender differences play a role in criminality. In this regard, which one of the options below points to circumstances that lead females to act more aggressively than males?

1. Females in a female setting may feel more restricted than males to express anger and aggression.

2. Anonymity may prevent females from empathising with the victim, which may lead to aggressive behaviour.

3. Gender differences in aggression increase when the male victim is known to the female.

4. Females behave less aggressively than males when they have the means to do so and do not believe that their behaviour is justified.

21. The ... level, also known as the principled level, is marked by a growing realisation that individuals are separate entities from society and that the individual's own perspective may take precedence over society's view.

1. conventional

2. pre-conventional

3. post-conventional

4. interim-conventional

22. Which one of the options below applies, in order for a subject to qualify as an independent discipline?

1. It must follow general and common procedures or methods in research

2. It must have a wide range of objects of study

3. It must be possible to identify general and common areas of study

4. It must have a sturdy theoretical foundation

23. Intention is linked to two foundations, namely ... elements.

1. affective and cognitive

2. conative and emotional

3. cognitive and volitional

4. expressive and volitional

24. To determine a 'good theory', the principle of 'evidence of validity' refers to:

1. Generalisation of ideas

2. Facts fitting together harmoniously to guide policy implications

3. The ability to contradict the assumptions of a theory

4. Real-life empirical support for the theory

25. Marital conflict and break-up, interfamilial and interpersonal conflict, parental neglect and deviance, are aspects linked to ... as a risk factor for criminal causation.

1. socialisation

2. family composition

3. family structure

4. family functioning

PART C

1.Which school of thought suggests that people have a free will to choose between criminal and conventional behaviour and that their choices bring them pleasure and reduce pain?

1. Positivist criminology

2. Classical criminology

3. Liberal criminology

4. Critical criminology

2. Xenophobia is an example of crime where ... is the primary motive.

1. passion

2. jealousy

3. hatred

4. greed

3. Focusing on the conditions in the urban environment that affect crime in families, school and commercial establishments are linked to the ... theory.

1. social disorganisation

2. social learning

3. strain

4. cultural deviance

4. Who developed the integrated cognitive antisocial potential (ICAP) theory that focuses on antisocial potential and cognition?

1. Agnew

2. Hirschi

3. Moffit

4. Farrington

5. Which options is an assumption of positivism which states that individual differences in behaviour are rooted in factors beyond, or at least not entirely, within the control of individuals?

1. Social learning

2. Rational choice

3. Determinism

4. Free will

6. Family functioning as a criminal risk factor is linked to:

1. Marital and inter-familial conflict, parental neglect, insensitivity and parental deviancy.

2. Broken homes, parental desertion, parental absence and family structure.

3. Acceptance of parental responsibilities, personality and temperament.

4. Parental behavioural patterns, intelligence levels, emotional distress and mental disorders.

7. According to the free will perspective and ..., all human behaviour is purposive and based on the pleasure-pain principle.

1. utilitarianism

2. hedonism

3. augmentation

4. constructionism

8. With regards to the cognitive component, the ability to see things from another person's point of view is an important part of social cognition associated with criminal behaviour. This component is linked to:

1. Locus of control

2. Moral reasoning

3. Mindset

4. Empathy

9. De Wet (2008) distinguishes between various types of rape categories. Which option is a sub-category of power rape?

1. Power-dispute

2. Power-reassurance

3. Power-redirect

4. Power-discord

10. Which one of the following theories does not focus on social structures, but rather tries to explain how people become offenders through learning?

1. Consensus

2. Structure

3. Process

4. Trait

11. Which option refers to knowledge of a particular discipline that has been systematically studied?

1. Analysis

2. Interpretation

3. Science

4. Fiction

12. Which theory lists chronic recidivism and criminal careers as prominent aspects?

1. Rational choice

2. Trait

3. Social process

4. Social structure

13. Which option adequately refers to the fields of specialisation in criminology? 1. Public law, human rights and crime theories.

2. Restorative justice, victimology, criminal and deviant behaviour systems.

3. Private law, correctional administration and crime theories.

4. Criminal justice, crime theories, criminal and deviant behaviour systems.

14. The statement that a theory is never proven true and that no amount of evidence could possibly disprove it, relates to the ... of a theory.

1. plausibility

2. validity

3. predictability

4. falsifiability

15. According to the general theory of crime, the root cause of poor self-control can be traced to:

1. Alcohol and drug abuse

2. Inappropriate peer associations

3. Poor academic achievement

4. Inadequate child-rearing practices

16. With regard to crime trends, stress levels that increase because of long-term exposure to extreme temperatures and affects the increase of violent crimes, relates to:

1. Crime trends according to climate change

2. Crime trends according to a decreasing ozone layer

3. Crime trends according to seasonal patterns

4. Crime trends according to day, season and climate

17. A ... survey measures the amount, nature and patterns of abuse in a population.

1. population

2. national

3. ethnic

4. victimisation

18. A paramilitary group that metes out justice because of the absence of effective victim assistance services, resides under ... justice.

1. formal

2. organised

3. unorganised

4. informal

19. The dynamic process of being shut out fully or partially from various social, economic, political and cultural systems, that assist in the integration of a person in society, refers to:

1. Social disorganisation

2. Transformation

3. Gender inequality

4. Marginalisation

20. The classical school is derived mainly from the work of:

1. Immanuel Kant

2. Cesare Beccaria

3. Adolfe Quetelet

4. Cesare Lombrosso

21. Which variation of feminism is known as the 'dual system theory' and recognises that both capitalist and patriarchal systems play a role in the subordination of women?

1. Social feminism

2. Radical feminism

3. Postmodern feminism

4. Marxist feminism

22. A ... factor increases the probability of offending and is a characteristic of an individual and circumstances associated with harmful or negative outcomes.

1. genetic

2. risk

3. need

4. responsive

23. According to the juridical elements of crime, the ... refers to the culpable frame of mind when a person commits a crime and where deliberate intent and negligence are used to determine the accountability of the person.

1. wrongfulness of the act

2. element of guilt

3. act itself

4. element of punishment

24. The ... approach advocates that children model their behaviour on the responses that they evoke from parents, television programmes or the movies.

1. cognitive

2. rational choice

3. social learning

4. moral development

25. Elements such as thinking, memory, learning, awareness and observation are linked to the process of ...

1. cognition.

2. socialisation.

3. rationality.

4. Emotion

PATRT D

1. The term 'criminology' was first used by an/a ... called ...

1. American criminologist; Sutherland.

2. English sociologist; Beccaria.

3. French criminologist; Rousseau.

4. French sociologist; Toppinard.

2. According to ... feminism, the subordination of women is linked to the wider social structures and inequalities, while discrimination is found in social practices, especially within the public sphere.

1. liberal

2. radical

3. socialist

4. black

3. According to ... criminology, punishment must be 'swift and certain' after the commission of a crime, as the purpose of the criminal justice system is to prevent crime through deterrence.

1. postmodern

2. positivistic

3. classical

4. feministic

4. For ... offenders, an early onset of crime is a risk factor and they usually only take stock of their lives in their late thirties or early forties.

1. mentally ill

2. juvenile

3. child

4. habitual

5. Poor socialisation can be a risk factor for criminal involvement. In this regard, agents of socialisation include:

1. Mass media and family.

2. Peers and personality factors.

3. Low self-control and school.

4. Alcohol and drug abuse.

6. Which option below represents the forerunner of the social milieu school of thought?

1. Lombroso

2. Beccaria

3. Quetelet

4. Bentham

7. Human beings are studied from different dimensions. When studying the social dimension, aspects related to the family environment regarding parents and disciplinary styles refer to:

1. Method of parental rejection

2. Parental neglect and conflict

3. Parents and broken homes

4. Method of parental control

8. When focusing on certain body types, which option below refers to a body shape that is fragile and thin, with a small bone structure and an introverted personality?

1. Endomorphs

2. Mesomorphs

3. Ensomorphs

4. Ectomorphs

9. The criteria for a good theory include:

1. Plausibility, generalisation, feasibility and predictability.

2. Predictability, validity, feasibility and plausibility.

3. Falsifiability, validity, plausibility and predictability.

4. Authenticity, feasibility, plausibility and falsifiability.

10. Which theory below focuses on elements of strain and social disorganisation, claiming that strain and social isolation are unique to a lower-class culture, which results in disorganised neighbourhoods?

1. Cultural deviance

2. Social control

3. Strain

4. Social disorganisation

11. The use of multiple advanced computational methods to analyse large datasets with one or more data source(s) and to identify significant and recognisable patterns and trends, refers to:

1. Crime surveys

2. Crime mapping

3. Self-report studies

4. Data mining

12. The social dimension considers factors such as a hostile parent, lack of parental love and emotionally neglected children with ... as part of the family environment.

1. parental discord

2. parental control

3. parental rejection

4. parental conflict

13. The premise that the root of self-control lies within inadequate child-rearing practices can be linked to which theory?

1. General theory of crime

2. Social disorganisation

3. Social learning

4. Rational choice

14. According to ..., there are fewer differences in incidents between cultural and ethnic groups.

1. official crime statistics

2. racial breakdowns

3. police statistics

4. self-report studies

15. Which option is linked to an inner drive that compels and incites a person to behave in a certain manner?

1. Cognition

2. Need

3. Motive

4. Desire

16. Environmental, social and cultural sources of motivation that have the capacity to boost and direct behaviour and actions, refer to:

1. Core motives

2. Inner motives

3. External events

4. Internal events

17. The ... theory asserts that people freely choose their behaviour and are motivated by hedonism.

1. rational choice

2. consensus

3. trait

4. There is not a 4th option

18. The assumption that conflict and power relations between different classes of people influence society and that mostly women, the working class and ethnic minority groups suffer oppression, refers to ... criminology.

1. feminist

2. critical

3. classical

4. positivistic

19. When analysing the age of offenders, ... persons commit more crime than ... persons.

1. younger; adolescent

2. older; younger

3. younger; older

4. older; young adult

20. The dramatic political and social changes in South Africa since the 1990s created fear, stress, insecurity and feelings of ineptitude and helplessness in communities that were characterised by high levels of criminal and political violence and a perception that the criminal justice system is inadequate. These responses are associated with ... as specific factors that contributed to crime in South Africa.

1. vigilantism, revenge and self-defence

2. youth marginalisation issues

3. socio-psychological issues

4. crime and economic development

21. Which option refers to the notion that violence is acceptable to preserve the existing order and that political parties use violence to keep the opposition out of certain areas and control certain areas as contributory factors to crime?

1. Absence of national political consensus on crime issues

2. Political culture, violence and crime

3. Negotiated transition and the destruction of social control

4. Political rivalry as a factor contributing to crime

22. As one of three facilitating factors, ... is referred to as a "disease" and an individual risk factor that is often present when crimes are committed.

1. depression

2. mental illness

3. alcoholism

4. impulsivity

23. ... concluded that people are "born criminals."

1. Ronald Akers

2. Travis Hirschi

3. Edwin Sutherland

4. Cesare Lombrosso

24. Which school of thought assumes that people are driven into crime by forces largely out of their control?

1. Positivist

2. Post-modernist

3. Radical

4. Classical

25. Social process theorists operate from a sociological perspective known as:

1. Social disorganisation

2. Social learning

3. Symbolic interactionism

4. Symbolic counteractionism