Read the following article and write a 1-2 paragraph summary of the article.

Answer the following questions

1. In your opinion after reading the article, what is the top issue related to ethics and big data? Prior to reading the article, what would you have said the primary issue is regarding ethics and big data?

2. Ethics is an interesting area to study. It is impacted by our culture, religion, social standards, and personal values. Have you experienced situations where you believed someone was behaving in an unethical way? Did you confront them or report them to an authority? How do you ensure that you behave ethically? (yes, this includes academic integrity!!)

3. Can ethics be effectively legislated? Why or why not?

1. Introduction of data generation and exchange means that digital media has become increasingly more data intensive and media rich. Im- Big Data is a phenomenon that is fundamentally changing what provements to the telecommunications infrastructure combined we know and do. Big. Data is all about capturing. storing, sharing, with the rapid deployment of high-speed wireless technologies evaluating. and acting upon information that humans and devices worldwide have enabled greater bandwidth for transferring this create and distribute using computer-based technologies and net- data as well as the ability to share it globally. As a result, the velocity works. Data comes from a multitude of sources, including sensors of data streaming has become so intensive that in 2016 , it projected used to gather climate information, posts to social media sites. that theie will be 18.9 billion network connections - almost 2.5. digital pictures and videos, purchase transaction records, RFID de- connections per person on earth. However, it must also be noted vices, and cell phone GPS signals to name a few. Today we are now that the increase in the volume, variety, and velocity of data is generating 2.5 quintillion bytes of data - so much that 90% of the indiscriminate relative to the quality of data being captured and data in the world today has been created in the last two years alone exchanged. Hence Big. Data is agitated by its veracity. because 11. Collectively this plethora of data is called Big Data. oftentimes the data being collected and distributed is incomplete Big Data is described by IBM in terms of four dimensions: vol- and/or inaccurate |2]. ume, variety, velocity, and veracity. Where once organizational Bag Datal computer applications were the primary source of data generation, variability and complexity. Big Data variabilsty is evidenced by the new social, personal, and device-to-device digital communications fact that data flows can be highly inconsistent with periodic peaks. have accelerated data volume growth exponentially. The volume of Complexity is manifested in the nature of the data itself it is both data is now projected to be 40 zettabytes by 2020, an increase of structured and unstructured and coming from multiple sources. 300 times from 2005 . In addition, the variety of data is also which make the data difficult to link, match. cleanse, and transform increasing due to new sources and forms of datal creation. Video across systems |1h. sharing, social media. location services and other innovative forms Big Data provides new opportunities for companies enhance their performance. The Big. Data market has a strong momentum as businesses accelerate their transformation into data-driven com- - Cerresponding author. panies. This momentum is driving strong growth in Big Datarelated infrastructure, software, and services. A new forecast from 12. Intermational Data Corporation (ADC) sees the IHiz Dasa technology that the use of Big Data necesurily requires skepticismand casticin and services market growing at a compound annul growth rate to avoid statistical false posatives and incorrect findings that nuy (CAGR) of 23.17 over the Z014-2019 forecast period with anmual Jead to bad decsions and unintended risk for both the arganiza: spending reaching 5436 billion in 2019/4. tions and its customers. When coenbined with analytics and data mining. Big Daca pro- Zwitter (s) armues that Ble Data has the efiect of shifting the vides new oppostunities for anderstanding and predicting con- focus of ethics away fram the individuals abilify to make moral sumer behavior., and more. Firms are using Big Data to enhance judgements on sorme notion of right or wrong as well as their their relationships with existing custorners and to exploit oppor- accosantability tnsted. Beg Data recyuices an examination of those funities to attract new customers. In addition. Bes Data is bering that have control over Ber Duta. becaule Bis Dafa can be tard to analyzed to better manage supoly chains, health ceare, to monitor target and manipulate people to consume or behare in a certain equipment and facilities, and to create new products and services wab. Beg Data stakeholilers wield a significant amount of power or to enhance existang ocher. because they control the collection and the utility of Bir Rata. However, this relatively new abolity to capture, share, analyze. employing dara derived knonvingly or unianowingly from oeherr. and act upon a wealth of new data is not without potential risk for Blig Data can have the eflect of reducing knowable outcomes of firms and their custemers. As noted above, oftentimes Ros Dura is actans, while increasing unintended consequesies. Therefore. difficult to manage and it is often incornglete or even inaccurate. Zwirter contends that Big Data fundamentally changes the nature Yet it is also rich and easily and continuously avarlable in huge of ethical debates by redefinung what porwer is and where it lies and volumes for analysis. Because the nature of Big. Data is 30 indis- the eatent bo which free will in fact ruides ane's actions. criminate. firms may be privy fo informarion that they never The research appecach taken in this paper is taxenoeing bused. intentionally intended to collect. In other words. Hig Dara may The authors larve examined a broud range of ethical asgroacher. incorporate information that infringes upon people's privacy. building al complete taxonocry. From this collection. ethical apBecause of this, Cartner asserts that when Big thata is rabjected to peouches that morst closehy represented the current socaetal ethics soptasticated advanced analytics capabilities, new tisks bocome were chosen for further carnination. The coenplete taxonocry and inherently associated with Dig Dara. In fact, they predict that by ethical implications of ofther ethical approaches within the rawon2018, 50 of of business ethics violations will occur throcigh improper ony are available upon request. use of Bug Data analytics {5}. Herold 6 has identified a number of important privacy risk. Z. Big Data aad ethical isues associated with Hies Dota and Big Duea analytics. For exarmple, with so much data and with powerful analytics, is may be impossible to Kichards and King [9 rote that large datasets are beins mined remove the ability to identity individuals, if there are no rules for important peedictions that often yield surprising insights. They established for the use of anonymured data files. For example, if one. acsert that because of Bir Data and the analytics used to examine it. anonymized data set was combined with another completely all kinds of human activities and decisions are bcgining be be separate dasa base, without firs defermining if amy ocher data influenced by Ble Dara predictions including dating shoppine. items should be removed prior to curbbining to protect anomgrmity. medicine, education, wotang, lavy enlorcement, terrorism prevenit is poisible that inderaduals could be re-identified. The important . tion, and cybersecurity. Yet while this is occurring, individuals have and riecessary key step she says that is ucually missing is etab- little idea concerning what data is being collected, let alone shared lishing the rules and policies for how anonymized data files can be with third parnies. Hetece, Pochards and King assett that eaisting combined and used together: She also notes that if data masking is privacy peotections focused on managing persorully ideneifying not used appcopriately, Big Data analysis could easily reveal the information are not enough when secondary uses of Big Data sets actual individuals whose data has been masked. Herold wares that can icxerse eneineer past, present, and event future beeaches of Big Data ean be used to try to inftuence and drive behaviors. Whar is peivary, confidentiality. and idenriry. They nate rhar flig Data efferts implied here is that beg Data can be ascd by organirations to make a find marry of the meost tevealing perional data sets such as call mach wider variety of decisions that do not take into accocmt the history. location history. sacial netwark connections, searth history. privacy of the individuals whose personal data is being exploited. purchase history, and facial recognition and much of this this inThis peoblem is further agyavated by the fact that that Big Data can formation is ace already in the hands of gowrimments and corpobe used to fill in gaps in informatien about individuals. This can fations. And the collectice of these and other dara sets is enly occur because the collection of Big. Daca from online trancactions accelecating. Richards and King concluble that Big Data as puoducing and the internet of Things oftentimes afforts firms the opportanity increased institutional awareness and power that requires the to expand their knowledge about an individual without their development of Big Data ethics to protect individual rights. knoviedge or consent. In effect this means that decision maling is calnan and walliarm fol have noted the poteratial far aberes af oftentimes being transferred away from individeal decisions that informational feuse and unauthorized data that condd fesult in have knowable outconcs and icplaced by actions derived from flig peivacy pecticms. They state that information reuse imvohes afData analytics which may have uniatended consequences for many. ganizations making legal decisions about new uses for the personal Zoldan IV/argues that many times the Bsg Data being utiliaed for information they hane collected, while unauthorized access indecirison faking is not always correct as it is oftentimes incomplete. wolves empleyees viewing personal indormation they are nat biased and,or missing contrat. Despite this, organirations authoriznd to vicw. Bceh activities. informatioe revise and enaufrequently have a false sense of confidence in the data, since there is thoriacd access, can potentialhy threaten an individual's abilify to so much Big Data available. This is especialty problematic if Big Data for maintain a condition of limited access to his her personal infor algonithms are drawing inaccurate conclusioas atoour customer fration. harm individuats. and sabsequently threaten the organiidentidies and behwior based en faved data. Other potential zation's legitimacy in ins interacticen with conrurners. problems associated with Dig. Data analysis are signal crrer and sharcholders and regulatars. Rivacy harms resulting from lanauconfirmation bias. Sigral error cccurs when large gapis of data have. thoriaed access can include a hreach of cuinfidentiality and trast, or been overlooked. Confirmation bias is the phenomena that data is the financial harm to individuals fromidentity theft or identity selectively ured to confirm a precating vimwpoint. while eis- fraud. Unfortunately. Fitg Data has echly enhanced the poternal for regardeag the data that refutes it. The point being made by zoldan is such istues. When examining the implications of Eig Data on market research, Nunan and Di Domenico [11] identified privacy challentes anvuants of data about consumers, oftice withost their inowledge of consent, and shared in ways thut people dodit want or expect. For created by the use of big Daca. The hint issue they documented Big Data to work in ethikal terms, the daca cowners fthe pecele arises from different sers of data thar would not peeviocrsly have whose data is being used a thould ar a minimen be geovided with a been considered as harring privacy implications cancerns being transpavent view of how their data is being useel - or sodd. That combined in ways that then thesaten privary. They call this the said, the authors also note that it is not realintic to think of all inunintended use paradoc. One cxample cited is the discovery by Alrrmation as being cithes sectet of shared, cenyletely public of researchers who ased publicly available informatioa and photoeompletely private. Oftentames duta is shased of ponerated by graphs from Facebook and, through application of farial recognition design by trusted services for important services fior consumers. voftware. matched this infocmation to identify previously anocy. Their point is thut in these cincumetancer. there is na inglied mous individuals on a major dating site. In anocher example. cansent that the data can be uned for any other parpost. anonymous. 'de-identified' healeh information distributed between OS health providers was formed to loe traceable hack to individuals 3. Exhical perspectives when modern anatytical toots were applied. With Big Data comes the possability of significantly changing the relaticeship that in- A drecussion of ethics acad Firg Dusa is defendent upon hov coe dividuls have with the data collected about them. Moreover, defines ethack. In general, ethics invohves the analyis of conduct because Big Data and data minicg findings are derived using cor- that can cayse benefit or tharm to ocher peogle. However, ithics is a relations ansong data, thefe is a higher likelahood for finding topic that has been stiadied for at least 2400 yearn and in that rime random connectedness on the bask of randem commonalities. The thete have been a number of formulatiocs of ethical principles. result of this is that Big Data analyses may yicld information that Sound ethical theuries shure a curminoe property- They erable based os incidental oscurrences. based on the principles sated by the ethical thesory. To dlostrare The second privacy challenge Wuanan and Di Domenico aucer- this, four ethical theoriei will be triefly eamined: yantiunish. tained revolves around the fact that data is increasingly being Utilitarianism. Social Contract Theory, and Virtue Ithick. collected ausononsouslo, independent of haman activity. The authors note that with the emergence of netwodk-thabled sensars on 3.t. Raretiantim: everything from electricity and water supplies to airplanes, the volunse of data created by these devices, and the spered with which the data mast be analyzed means that data collected is ausomatically analyzed without any censideration for indinidual consent. not about what we do. bsit what we ought to do. What we ouche fo Mandinach. Parton, Gummer, and Anderson |12| state that the do refiects oar dotifulness. Dutifulnest reflects good will - the ethical ere of data imvolves knowizg how to use data and how to desire to do things right bused epoa rules thut evtriyone ought to protect privasy and maintain fhe confidentialify of data. Soch Sollow, That is a datiful prrsoe acts stre way thry do because of a innowledge inclades how to remave identifying information from a morale nule. These rules are imperatives that ace aither hypothetdata record and knowing who has access to data and when and ical or categorical and thiry are the rimeans by whach neason combow, and the process by which to release data or realts. Ualorte- mands our will and our actions. Afypochetical imgeratives equate nately, oftentimes the processing of beg Date is autemated, being basically to conditional if then atiatements reletive to what you are proceised by devices that using analytic algorithms that are trying to accomplish. Catcgorical imperathes command sncondinsensitive to these issues. And even when humans are iavolved in tionally as they are aneweivati. For esample, one categorical efforts impractical. would expect everyone rise to follow. Ancerer states that yruu Governments have tricd to mitigate the potential privacy issues should never treat people as means to an end, but at an end unto inherent in the collection and use of Big Data. Nicolas Trry |1]| themselves since all persons huve moisall worth and should be notes that receatly the European Court of Jughice asserted a right treated with degnity. For Kant, rules are guraimone. Everyone is of erasure that recuires the data controller fo rake all reasonable beld to the same stantaid and there ate clear guidelines for steps to have individeals data erased, including data provided by appropeiate behaviot. Hence, in Kastianism it is nor the octcome of third parties without delay, for the personal data that the controller a beharior that matters, rather it is nthe nalle behind the action that is has made public wuthour legal juitafication, In conerau. Terry finds mosk critical 1 15: the current views of the US government on Eis Data ftemation and how to deal with the threat to heahti prinary to be either encoberent or, at best, coalereing around inadecgaate downstrean data protection models such as transgasency and 'use point" regalation. 32. Ltilitartancom dation that affirmative [ops-inj express consent should peecede the pight ar wrong bused on the onesepuences of an act or a rule. The coliection and sharing of inSorination with data brokers. act atillarian perspective deplies the priatiple eff atility fo indiKing and Rechards| 14 fecommend that baming governmental vidual moral actiens and the rule uriluarlan applics the principle of intervention, organizations should at least engage in conversataons sutility to moral nules. The right act is one that produsres the greatert about Eis Data ethics. For example, they argue that firms should happiness for a cammunity or nocicty. A wroes act decreases the define and cnforce rules about data ase and retention. In accord total happiness of the affected partica. The right moral rule of with the FrC recommendation, King and Richard believe people conduct is one whese if it is adogted hy everyone, will lead fo the should have the ability to manage the flow of their private infor- greateat net increase in happincs for all involved. Hirnce. in the mation across mastrve, third-puity amabyikal systems. As already stilitaranismi ethical perripetiof, ocee mant calculate whut action noted. Big Data ts pewerful because secondary uses of data sets or fule achicves the best ftielto. Thut as, one mast litrrally account produce new predictions and inferences. This leads to data being a. for and the weigh the good and the bad elentients atfecting a situbusiness, with peogle such as data brokers, collecting massive ation to determine the net choniequencrs of the action or rule Hence, tulike the Kantian perspective where the focus is upon information online informing conumers that the data they capture exarnining the will that motivates an action, in Utalitarianism it is from a user's online behumior patterns may be used to offer new the "happiness" or the maximum well-being outcouse that is nost products or aervices. Some even provide their customers the option critical [16] to opt-out of the firm's ability to shafe their information with of- 3.3. Seciol Contract Theory ganization's business partners. The fact is, however, that practically spealing, no one lus the ability to deternine how their data is Social Contract Theory. fbased in the arguments made actually shared and used, because the Dig Data space is too big and the pis is no mechaniom affording the individual the abulity to (1588 - 1689. John Locke (1632-1804, actively monitor and control their private informution. Hence to a Jean jacques Rousseau (1712-1775), and jahn Rawls (1921-2002)] great extent, individuals are blind to the sharing of their digitized is an ethical perspective that states that a person's moral andior data. While individuals may employ digital services to warn them political obligations are dependent upon a contract or agreement of identity theft, to montitor credit issues, or to inform them when that people have made to form the society in which thry live. In this they are mentioned in postings, they are typically forced to be theory people are seed as rarionale beings who understand that in reactive rather than proactive pocture in respocding to information order to create and maintain a society. prople must cooperate and sthat muy affect theif privacy and secutity. agree to follow certain guidelines in order to gain the benefits of Blig Data compromises the old adage that state Treat people social living. To do this, that people must choose rationality over how you want to be treated", This phrase speaks to the Kantian their natural selfish instincte. That is, they must be willing to submit notion that one should act only on the moral rules that you can to a grvernment and its laws in ofder to live in a civil society. father imagine everyone else following. However, with Bis. Data inthun live in a "nugural' state of ansichy and chaos. The social con-. dividuls are frequently represented simply as data points that are tract provides the justification for the establishment of moral rules then used to manipulate whar the perion will view in the future. to govern relationships among citizens as well as the mechanism. That is, information is presented to individuals online that Big Data capable of eafording these rules - govimnent [17). calculatioss determine best reflects their projected greferences 3.4. Virtue Ehics based upon their previous search and online pape view history. This 3.4. Virtie tuss algocithmic manipulation presumes the will of the individul Virtue ethics emphasizes virtues, or moral character, rather than Usiag a Kantian viewpoint, one might ask whether everyone duties, rules, of the consequences of actions. Rnoted in the arga- should assent to a rule that states that everyone's informution can ments of Aristotle (384 DCE-322 BCE) and Hato (428 i iCE - 347 beshared with or without their permission, regardless whether it is BCE, this theory defines a virtue as a character trait or disposition accurate or inaccurate, coenplete or incomplete, current or dated, that is well entrenched in its possessor which makes that person asd thik information can be used to influence and represent peogood. There are two types of virtues, intellectual and moral virtues. ples behavior and interests with or without their consent. This is Intellectual virtues are those derived from reasoning and truth. probably unlikely, otherwise there would not be so many concerns Mocal virtues are deep-seated habits or despositions formed expretsed about Big Data and privacy rights and peotection. throagh the repetikion of vistwocks actions over time. Morally good The point here is that Kantianism provides a relatively people fealize happiness by consistently acting out their virtues, straightforward meaas for ciscussing the ethics of Rig Data. it asdoing what any virtuous person would know to be right. for serts that all people are rational, autonomous beings having moral example, bonesty. justice. generosity, and loyalty may be seen to be worth and everyone is held to the same universal moral guideless. core virtues [18]. Because of this, Big Duta is probletatoc for Kantian beliefs because. 4. Applying ethical theories to Btg Data issues the actions associated wiah Eis Data challenge the riglats and Gir treatment of the individual. These ethical perspectives ase useful for anderstanding how 4.2. Unuitariankm and Big Data ethirs informs Big Dala-relased issues. Frequently. there are articles in the press that discuss ethical concems, though the underpinnings of the ethical viewpoint are left unclear. However, by employing the ethical perspetives described above, it is porsible to that acts and rules be assessed using a utilitarian calculus where the better understand how and wby ethics helps to inform an issae god and bad of Eig Dara are weighed on a scale. From an Act Unilsuch as Bg Dafa privacy coecerns. itarian perspective, for example, one would have to quantify the 4.1. Kantianism and Pig Dufa plusses and minases of Big Dada consequences relative to such factors as the intensity of the experience, iss duration, the probability that someching would occur, how close the experiences are in Kontian analysis argoes that one should always respect the at- space and time, its ability to produce more experiences of the same tonony of ocher people, treating them as ends in thenselves and kind, the extent to which pleasure is not diluted by pain or vice never coly as means to an end. With big Dara, this would be a versa, and the number of pecple affected. To make a decisioe as to diffculh case to make. Since data is routinely collected and analyzed whether a use of Beg Data is right or wrotge one would tokal the to assess individuals without their corsent, organizations positive and negative consequences to all being aflected, total up employing Big Data are not respecting the aatonomy of people and the positives and the negatives and choose the ahtemative with the they are in fact using personal data as a means to an end to further highes amount. Kule Vtilitarianism as more simplistic than Act the organization's self-interest. The nature of Pig Duta is that in Urilitarianism It angues that we should follow a moral rule because general, people typically do not opt-in to their data collection and its adoption would result in the greatest net increase in happiness. exploitation, demonstrating their consent and hence shared re- Big Dara would be assessed relative to the weighing of its harms spossibility. This means that by default, their privary is compro- and benefits to society [ti9. mised for the gain of another. The major drawback of this approach is the ambiguity and Organizations utilizing Big Data may argue that they post biaces inherent in trying to identify and quantify both the pros and cons. Trying to reach conscasus as to the inteet and impact of thig person. Hence to assess the ethics of Big Data one could, for Data would be problematic since the costs and benefits in the cxample, assess the moral wisdom of those who are using Blig. Data anslysis woeld have to be quantified to a common economic unit of knowing that their actions may compromise the privacy of another. anslysis. Moreover, the analysis may have inhereat bias as certain If one determines that these individuals are ignoring the rights of issues may be aforded more weight than ofhers by those per- ofbers by their actions. then one might reasonably argue that tbey forming the analysis. While the Utilitarian idea of balancing the are exhibiting a vice (eg. divhonesty, greed) that reflects a defipros against the cons is familiar to most as a system for judgrment, ciency in their moral character. On the ocher hand, if the use Big in this case the process of using it to assess the value of Big Data is Data by mecical authorities helps to prevent of manage disease. too complex to perform, inherently flawed by imprecise measure- then we may conclude that this peflects the virtuoas nature of those ment. and thwarted by societies seneral lack of understanding who do so. Hence, it all depends on what we conclude about the about what Big Data is and the depth to which is is being used to character and intent of those who employ Big Datat This means that affect their lives, Virtue Ethics can be arduous, because it requires that one be 4. X Sociti Conersct Theory and Dik Dato scrupulous in examining the action talken by somecone to deteranine if that action is characteristic of a virtuous person. Thut is, after all, the approuch that a virtuous person would take. Social Contract theory emphasizes the creation of regulations and rules that rational peopie would agree to accept because they are to everyone's mutisal beneflt - as long as everyone else follows 5. Conclusion the rules. However, there are often differences between sacieties relative to the rules they adopt to govem their lives. For example, Farope and the United staters the media. However, to more clearly understand bow ethics applies to Hig Data it is important to undertand the terants of the theories than in the United States, a variety of lans apply to that inform these virws. The ethical framarworks described herein sectors, like health and credit. In the European Union, each examine ethical behavior from a different perspective. they attempt to strictly enforce. Recenty, the United Sates and argaments about what is right or wroog using logical, rational arEurope reached an agreement over their differences about whar guments. One can use thein to understand and evaluate whecher level of privacy individuals can expect whea duta is shared between thry think the ase of Big Dara is morally sight. As Quine | in] noter. them. This pact provides constraints on the free flow of data be- workable ethical theories all take people ocher than the deciaion tween Europe and the United 5 tates {20}. maker into consideration, assume that moral good and moral The key point being made here is that Social Contract Theory principles are objective, and rely tepon seasoning from fucts and affords diferent societies the ability to envision articulase and cominonly held values. Using workable ethical theories therefore enforce the same moral right differently. Sometimes these differ-. helps us to befter articulate oeir issues with Big Data based on a ences create issues that require negotiation between societies to clearty articulated set of moral values. enable compromise mechanisms that wil allow each party to Bis Data is becoening a major force in our dally lives. It affects procect the rules that have been established on behalf of their what we know aboul athers, what they know about un and citizens. oftentimes how we act because of what the information it shares Imploying Social Contract Theory. one can say that an individual s. with us. Not only do we contribute to it but so do the devices that has the right to privacy, but also the duty not to invade the privacy we use and those that surround us. of others. That said. Bis Data clearly poses a challenge to beth. Big By examining ethical theories, we can better recognize differing data compromises moral rules and deties bectuse in many ways if perspectives on Big Data-telated maral situations. better underhas rapidly hecome too powerful, too pervasive, and too essential to stand the content and the logic af the arguments being preceated, day-to-day life. It rreates a moral challenge for societies, because and in so doing better evaluate bow the intended course of action is people want to use the very technologies that create Big Data yet or should be justified. they also want to try to control how it affects them. tr muy be quite. The collection and use of Big Data has little to fecommend is diffcult for societies to revolve the moral dilensmas that Big Data from an ethical perspective. This overatl condision does indend imposes, but their attempt to do so will inevitably be expressed in cast a negative light on the uie of Bgg Data, but it also opens the the rules they create to do just that. Inevitably, rational people will door to finding ways to mitigate any ethical shortcomings, Big Data collectively determine what aspects of nig Data are morally right aslysis is here to stay. with cesults facilitating advances in medibecause of the resulting besefits they percehve as being afforded to cinc, sustainability, behavioral analysis, and globalization to same a their society. few. Positive outcomes provide the balance point that supports the 4.4. Virtue Eatics and Big Dotu use of Big Data; employing ethical theories helps us to better understand and nunage how it affects our lives. Virtual Ethics concerns itself with the qualities that people need 6. Future research to flourish and be truly happy. It cares about the agent who per: forms an action and the appropriateness of their actions. Avirtuous : After mapping big data to ethical theories, an important neet person does the right thing at the right time for the risht reasen, in step is the collection of qualiative data coamining the state of the this ethical perspective, moral decisions cannot be redused to a set users of big data. The avithors have emburked on the development of rules, so instead one examines charactet. of two surveys to examine issues in detail. The first survey adSince Big Data is not a person, one must necessarily examine the dresses "corporate" users of Eig Data, including collection, analysis feetings, character and actions of the people who deploy and use and sharing of data. The second survey addresses personal proBig Data while aho considering the intended and unintended of- viders of Hig Data, specifically addressing the trade-offs associated fects of their actions on others. Thar is, we mast assess those in- with sharing data via loyally cards, intemet asage, smart phones/ dividuals who employ Big Data and determine whether their tablets, social media and other smart devices. inteetions and use of it are consistent with the actions of a virtunes. Examination of these survey results will allow the creation of a 1. Introduction of data generation and exchange means that digital media has become increasingly more data intensive and media rich. Im- Big Data is a phenomenon that is fundamentally changing what provements to the telecommunications infrastructure combined we know and do. Big. Data is all about capturing. storing, sharing, with the rapid deployment of high-speed wireless technologies evaluating. and acting upon information that humans and devices worldwide have enabled greater bandwidth for transferring this create and distribute using computer-based technologies and net- data as well as the ability to share it globally. As a result, the velocity works. Data comes from a multitude of sources, including sensors of data streaming has become so intensive that in 2016 , it projected used to gather climate information, posts to social media sites. that theie will be 18.9 billion network connections - almost 2.5. digital pictures and videos, purchase transaction records, RFID de- connections per person on earth. However, it must also be noted vices, and cell phone GPS signals to name a few. Today we are now that the increase in the volume, variety, and velocity of data is generating 2.5 quintillion bytes of data - so much that 90% of the indiscriminate relative to the quality of data being captured and data in the world today has been created in the last two years alone exchanged. Hence Big. Data is agitated by its veracity. because 11. Collectively this plethora of data is called Big Data. oftentimes the data being collected and distributed is incomplete Big Data is described by IBM in terms of four dimensions: vol- and/or inaccurate |2]. ume, variety, velocity, and veracity. Where once organizational Bag Datal computer applications were the primary source of data generation, variability and complexity. Big Data variabilsty is evidenced by the new social, personal, and device-to-device digital communications fact that data flows can be highly inconsistent with periodic peaks. have accelerated data volume growth exponentially. The volume of Complexity is manifested in the nature of the data itself it is both data is now projected to be 40 zettabytes by 2020, an increase of structured and unstructured and coming from multiple sources. 300 times from 2005 . In addition, the variety of data is also which make the data difficult to link, match. cleanse, and transform increasing due to new sources and forms of datal creation. Video across systems |1h. sharing, social media. location services and other innovative forms Big Data provides new opportunities for companies enhance their performance. The Big. Data market has a strong momentum as businesses accelerate their transformation into data-driven com- - Cerresponding author. panies. This momentum is driving strong growth in Big Datarelated infrastructure, software, and services. A new forecast from 12. Intermational Data Corporation (ADC) sees the IHiz Dasa technology that the use of Big Data necesurily requires skepticismand casticin and services market growing at a compound annul growth rate to avoid statistical false posatives and incorrect findings that nuy (CAGR) of 23.17 over the Z014-2019 forecast period with anmual Jead to bad decsions and unintended risk for both the arganiza: spending reaching 5436 billion in 2019/4. tions and its customers. When coenbined with analytics and data mining. Big Daca pro- Zwitter (s) armues that Ble Data has the efiect of shifting the vides new oppostunities for anderstanding and predicting con- focus of ethics away fram the individuals abilify to make moral sumer behavior., and more. Firms are using Big Data to enhance judgements on sorme notion of right or wrong as well as their their relationships with existing custorners and to exploit oppor- accosantability tnsted. Beg Data recyuices an examination of those funities to attract new customers. In addition. Bes Data is bering that have control over Ber Duta. becaule Bis Dafa can be tard to analyzed to better manage supoly chains, health ceare, to monitor target and manipulate people to consume or behare in a certain equipment and facilities, and to create new products and services wab. Beg Data stakeholilers wield a significant amount of power or to enhance existang ocher. because they control the collection and the utility of Bir Rata. However, this relatively new abolity to capture, share, analyze. employing dara derived knonvingly or unianowingly from oeherr. and act upon a wealth of new data is not without potential risk for Blig Data can have the eflect of reducing knowable outcomes of firms and their custemers. As noted above, oftentimes Ros Dura is actans, while increasing unintended consequesies. Therefore. difficult to manage and it is often incornglete or even inaccurate. Zwirter contends that Big Data fundamentally changes the nature Yet it is also rich and easily and continuously avarlable in huge of ethical debates by redefinung what porwer is and where it lies and volumes for analysis. Because the nature of Big. Data is 30 indis- the eatent bo which free will in fact ruides ane's actions. criminate. firms may be privy fo informarion that they never The research appecach taken in this paper is taxenoeing bused. intentionally intended to collect. In other words. Hig Dara may The authors larve examined a broud range of ethical asgroacher. incorporate information that infringes upon people's privacy. building al complete taxonocry. From this collection. ethical apBecause of this, Cartner asserts that when Big thata is rabjected to peouches that morst closehy represented the current socaetal ethics soptasticated advanced analytics capabilities, new tisks bocome were chosen for further carnination. The coenplete taxonocry and inherently associated with Dig Dara. In fact, they predict that by ethical implications of ofther ethical approaches within the rawon2018, 50 of of business ethics violations will occur throcigh improper ony are available upon request. use of Bug Data analytics {5}. Herold 6 has identified a number of important privacy risk. Z. Big Data aad ethical isues associated with Hies Dota and Big Duea analytics. For exarmple, with so much data and with powerful analytics, is may be impossible to Kichards and King [9 rote that large datasets are beins mined remove the ability to identity individuals, if there are no rules for important peedictions that often yield surprising insights. They established for the use of anonymured data files. For example, if one. acsert that because of Bir Data and the analytics used to examine it. anonymized data set was combined with another completely all kinds of human activities and decisions are bcgining be be separate dasa base, without firs defermining if amy ocher data influenced by Ble Dara predictions including dating shoppine. items should be removed prior to curbbining to protect anomgrmity. medicine, education, wotang, lavy enlorcement, terrorism prevenit is poisible that inderaduals could be re-identified. The important . tion, and cybersecurity. Yet while this is occurring, individuals have and riecessary key step she says that is ucually missing is etab- little idea concerning what data is being collected, let alone shared lishing the rules and policies for how anonymized data files can be with third parnies. Hetece, Pochards and King assett that eaisting combined and used together: She also notes that if data masking is privacy peotections focused on managing persorully ideneifying not used appcopriately, Big Data analysis could easily reveal the information are not enough when secondary uses of Big Data sets actual individuals whose data has been masked. Herold wares that can icxerse eneineer past, present, and event future beeaches of Big Data ean be used to try to inftuence and drive behaviors. Whar is peivary, confidentiality. and idenriry. They nate rhar flig Data efferts implied here is that beg Data can be ascd by organirations to make a find marry of the meost tevealing perional data sets such as call mach wider variety of decisions that do not take into accocmt the history. location history. sacial netwark connections, searth history. privacy of the individuals whose personal data is being exploited. purchase history, and facial recognition and much of this this inThis peoblem is further agyavated by the fact that that Big Data can formation is ace already in the hands of gowrimments and corpobe used to fill in gaps in informatien about individuals. This can fations. And the collectice of these and other dara sets is enly occur because the collection of Big. Daca from online trancactions accelecating. Richards and King concluble that Big Data as puoducing and the internet of Things oftentimes afforts firms the opportanity increased institutional awareness and power that requires the to expand their knowledge about an individual without their development of Big Data ethics to protect individual rights. knoviedge or consent. In effect this means that decision maling is calnan and walliarm fol have noted the poteratial far aberes af oftentimes being transferred away from individeal decisions that informational feuse and unauthorized data that condd fesult in have knowable outconcs and icplaced by actions derived from flig peivacy pecticms. They state that information reuse imvohes afData analytics which may have uniatended consequences for many. ganizations making legal decisions about new uses for the personal Zoldan IV/argues that many times the Bsg Data being utiliaed for information they hane collected, while unauthorized access indecirison faking is not always correct as it is oftentimes incomplete. wolves empleyees viewing personal indormation they are nat biased and,or missing contrat. Despite this, organirations authoriznd to vicw. Bceh activities. informatioe revise and enaufrequently have a false sense of confidence in the data, since there is thoriacd access, can potentialhy threaten an individual's abilify to so much Big Data available. This is especialty problematic if Big Data for maintain a condition of limited access to his her personal infor algonithms are drawing inaccurate conclusioas atoour customer fration. harm individuats. and sabsequently threaten the organiidentidies and behwior based en faved data. Other potential zation's legitimacy in ins interacticen with conrurners. problems associated with Dig. Data analysis are signal crrer and sharcholders and regulatars. Rivacy harms resulting from lanauconfirmation bias. Sigral error cccurs when large gapis of data have. thoriaed access can include a hreach of cuinfidentiality and trast, or been overlooked. Confirmation bias is the phenomena that data is the financial harm to individuals fromidentity theft or identity selectively ured to confirm a precating vimwpoint. while eis- fraud. Unfortunately. Fitg Data has echly enhanced the poternal for regardeag the data that refutes it. The point being made by zoldan is such istues. When examining the implications of Eig Data on market research, Nunan and Di Domenico [11] identified privacy challentes anvuants of data about consumers, oftice withost their inowledge of consent, and shared in ways thut people dodit want or expect. For created by the use of big Daca. The hint issue they documented Big Data to work in ethikal terms, the daca cowners fthe pecele arises from different sers of data thar would not peeviocrsly have whose data is being used a thould ar a minimen be geovided with a been considered as harring privacy implications cancerns being transpavent view of how their data is being useel - or sodd. That combined in ways that then thesaten privary. They call this the said, the authors also note that it is not realintic to think of all inunintended use paradoc. One cxample cited is the discovery by Alrrmation as being cithes sectet of shared, cenyletely public of researchers who ased publicly available informatioa and photoeompletely private. Oftentames duta is shased of ponerated by graphs from Facebook and, through application of farial recognition design by trusted services for important services fior consumers. voftware. matched this infocmation to identify previously anocy. Their point is thut in these cincumetancer. there is na inglied mous individuals on a major dating site. In anocher example. cansent that the data can be uned for any other parpost. anonymous. 'de-identified' healeh information distributed between OS health providers was formed to loe traceable hack to individuals 3. Exhical perspectives when modern anatytical toots were applied. With Big Data comes the possability of significantly changing the relaticeship that in- A drecussion of ethics acad Firg Dusa is defendent upon hov coe dividuls have with the data collected about them. Moreover, defines ethack. In general, ethics invohves the analyis of conduct because Big Data and data minicg findings are derived using cor- that can cayse benefit or tharm to ocher peogle. However, ithics is a relations ansong data, thefe is a higher likelahood for finding topic that has been stiadied for at least 2400 yearn and in that rime random connectedness on the bask of randem commonalities. The thete have been a number of formulatiocs of ethical principles. result of this is that Big Data analyses may yicld information that Sound ethical theuries shure a curminoe property- They erable based os incidental oscurrences. based on the principles sated by the ethical thesory. To dlostrare The second privacy challenge Wuanan and Di Domenico aucer- this, four ethical theoriei will be triefly eamined: yantiunish. tained revolves around the fact that data is increasingly being Utilitarianism. Social Contract Theory, and Virtue Ithick. collected ausononsouslo, independent of haman activity. The authors note that with the emergence of netwodk-thabled sensars on 3.t. Raretiantim: everything from electricity and water supplies to airplanes, the volunse of data created by these devices, and the spered with which the data mast be analyzed means that data collected is ausomatically analyzed without any censideration for indinidual consent. not about what we do. bsit what we ought to do. What we ouche fo Mandinach. Parton, Gummer, and Anderson |12| state that the do refiects oar dotifulness. Dutifulnest reflects good will - the ethical ere of data imvolves knowizg how to use data and how to desire to do things right bused epoa rules thut evtriyone ought to protect privasy and maintain fhe confidentialify of data. Soch Sollow, That is a datiful prrsoe acts stre way thry do because of a innowledge inclades how to remave identifying information from a morale nule. These rules are imperatives that ace aither hypothetdata record and knowing who has access to data and when and ical or categorical and thiry are the rimeans by whach neason combow, and the process by which to release data or realts. Ualorte- mands our will and our actions. Afypochetical imgeratives equate nately, oftentimes the processing of beg Date is autemated, being basically to conditional if then atiatements reletive to what you are proceised by devices that using analytic algorithms that are trying to accomplish. Catcgorical imperathes command sncondinsensitive to these issues. And even when humans are iavolved in tionally as they are aneweivati. For esample, one categorical efforts impractical. would expect everyone rise to follow. Ancerer states that yruu Governments have tricd to mitigate the potential privacy issues should never treat people as means to an end, but at an end unto inherent in the collection and use of Big Data. Nicolas Trry |1]| themselves since all persons huve moisall worth and should be notes that receatly the European Court of Jughice asserted a right treated with degnity. For Kant, rules are guraimone. Everyone is of erasure that recuires the data controller fo rake all reasonable beld to the same stantaid and there ate clear guidelines for steps to have individeals data erased, including data provided by appropeiate behaviot. Hence, in Kastianism it is nor the octcome of third parties without delay, for the personal data that the controller a beharior that matters, rather it is nthe nalle behind the action that is has made public wuthour legal juitafication, In conerau. Terry finds mosk critical 1 15: the current views of the US government on Eis Data ftemation and how to deal with the threat to heahti prinary to be either encoberent or, at best, coalereing around inadecgaate downstrean data protection models such as transgasency and 'use point" regalation. 32. Ltilitartancom dation that affirmative [ops-inj express consent should peecede the pight ar wrong bused on the onesepuences of an act or a rule. The coliection and sharing of inSorination with data brokers. act atillarian perspective deplies the priatiple eff atility fo indiKing and Rechards| 14 fecommend that baming governmental vidual moral actiens and the rule uriluarlan applics the principle of intervention, organizations should at least engage in conversataons sutility to moral nules. The right act is one that produsres the greatert about Eis Data ethics. For example, they argue that firms should happiness for a cammunity or nocicty. A wroes act decreases the define and cnforce rules about data ase and retention. In accord total happiness of the affected partica. The right moral rule of with the FrC recommendation, King and Richard believe people conduct is one whese if it is adogted hy everyone, will lead fo the should have the ability to manage the flow of their private infor- greateat net increase in happincs for all involved. Hirnce. in the mation across mastrve, third-puity amabyikal systems. As already stilitaranismi ethical perripetiof, ocee mant calculate whut action noted. Big Data ts pewerful because secondary uses of data sets or fule achicves the best ftielto. Thut as, one mast litrrally account produce new predictions and inferences. This leads to data being a. for and the weigh the good and the bad elentients atfecting a situbusiness, with peogle such as data brokers, collecting massive ation to determine the net choniequencrs of the action or rule Hence, tulike the Kantian perspective where the focus is upon information online informing conumers that the data they capture exarnining the will that motivates an action, in Utalitarianism it is from a user's online behumior patterns may be used to offer new the "happiness" or the maximum well-being outcouse that is nost products or aervices. Some even provide their customers the option critical [16] to opt-out of the firm's ability to shafe their information with of- 3.3. Seciol Contract Theory ganization's business partners. The fact is, however, that practically spealing, no one lus the ability to deternine how their data is Social Contract Theory. fbased in the arguments made actually shared and used, because the Dig Data space is too big and the pis is no mechaniom affording the individual the abulity to (1588 - 1689. John Locke (1632-1804, actively monitor and control their private informution. Hence to a Jean jacques Rousseau (1712-1775), and jahn Rawls (1921-2002)] great extent, individuals are blind to the sharing of their digitized is an ethical perspective that states that a person's moral andior data. While individuals may employ digital services to warn them political obligations are dependent upon a contract or agreement of identity theft, to montitor credit issues, or to inform them when that people have made to form the society in which thry live. In this they are mentioned in postings, they are typically forced to be theory people are seed as rarionale beings who understand that in reactive rather than proactive pocture in respocding to information order to create and maintain a society. prople must cooperate and sthat muy affect theif privacy and secutity. agree to follow certain guidelines in order to gain the benefits of Blig Data compromises the old adage that state Treat people social living. To do this, that people must choose rationality over how you want to be treated", This phrase speaks to the Kantian their natural selfish instincte. That is, they must be willing to submit notion that one should act only on the moral rules that you can to a grvernment and its laws in ofder to live in a civil society. father imagine everyone else following. However, with Bis. Data inthun live in a "nugural' state of ansichy and chaos. The social con-. dividuls are frequently represented simply as data points that are tract provides the justification for the establishment of moral rules then used to manipulate whar the perion will view in the future. to govern relationships among citizens as well as the mechanism. That is, information is presented to individuals online that Big Data capable of eafording these rules - govimnent [17). calculatioss determine best reflects their projected greferences 3.4. Virtue Ehics based upon their previous search and online pape view history. This 3.4. Virtie tuss algocithmic manipulation presumes the will of the individul Virtue ethics emphasizes virtues, or moral character, rather than Usiag a Kantian viewpoint, one might ask whether everyone duties, rules, of the consequences of actions. Rnoted in the arga- should assent to a rule that states that everyone's informution can ments of Aristotle (384 DCE-322 BCE) and Hato (428 i iCE - 347 beshared with or without their permission, regardless whether it is BCE, this theory defines a virtue as a character trait or disposition accurate or inaccurate, coenplete or incomplete, current or dated, that is well entrenched in its possessor which makes that person asd thik information can be used to influence and represent peogood. There are two types of virtues, intellectual and moral virtues. ples behavior and interests with or without their consent. This is Intellectual virtues are those derived from reasoning and truth. probably unlikely, otherwise there would not be so many concerns Mocal virtues are deep-seated habits or despositions formed expretsed about Big Data and privacy rights and peotection. throagh the repetikion of vistwocks actions over time. Morally good The point here is that Kantianism provides a relatively people fealize happiness by consistently acting out their virtues, straightforward meaas for ciscussing the ethics of Rig Data. it asdoing what any virtuous person would know to be right. for serts that all people are rational, autonomous beings having moral example, bonesty. justice. generosity, and loyalty may be seen to be worth and everyone is held to the same universal moral guideless. core virtues [18]. Because of this, Big Duta is probletatoc for Kantian beliefs because. 4. Applying ethical theories to Btg Data issues the actions associated wiah Eis Data challenge the riglats and Gir treatment of the individual. These ethical perspectives ase useful for anderstanding how 4.2. Unuitariankm and Big Data ethirs informs Big Dala-relased issues. Frequently. there are articles in the press that discuss ethical concems, though the underpinnings of the ethical viewpoint are left unclear. However, by employing the ethical perspetives described above, it is porsible to that acts and rules be assessed using a utilitarian calculus where the better understand how and wby ethics helps to inform an issae god and bad of Eig Dara are weighed on a scale. From an Act Unilsuch as Bg Dafa privacy coecerns. itarian perspective, for example, one would have to quantify the 4.1. Kantianism and Pig Dufa plusses and minases of Big Dada consequences relative to such factors as the intensity of the experience, iss duration, the probability that someching would occur, how close the experiences are in Kontian analysis argoes that one should always respect the at- space and time, its ability to produce more experiences of the same tonony of ocher people, treating them as ends in thenselves and kind, the extent to which pleasure is not diluted by pain or vice never coly as means to an end. With big Dara, this would be a versa, and the number of pecple affected. To make a decisioe as to diffculh case to make. Since data is routinely collected and analyzed whether a use of Beg Data is right or wrotge one would tokal the to assess individuals without their corsent, organizations positive and negative consequences to all being aflected, total up employing Big Data are not respecting the aatonomy of people and the positives and the negatives and choose the ahtemative with the they are in fact using personal data as a means to an end to further highes amount. Kule Vtilitarianism as more simplistic than Act the organization's self-interest. The nature of Pig Duta is that in Urilitarianism It angues that we should follow a moral rule because general, people typically do not opt-in to their data collection and its adoption would result in the greatest net increase in happiness. exploitation, demonstrating their consent and hence shared re- Big Dara would be assessed relative to the weighing of its harms spossibility. This means that by default, their privary is compro- and benefits to society [ti9. mised for the gain of another. The major drawback of this approach is the ambiguity and Organizations utilizing Big Data may argue that they post biaces inherent in trying to identify and quantify both the pros and cons. Trying to reach conscasus as to the inteet and impact of thig person. Hence to assess the ethics of Big Data one could, for Data would be problematic since the costs and benefits in the cxample, assess the moral wisdom of those who are using Blig. Data anslysis woeld have to be quantified to a common economic unit of knowing that their actions may compromise the privacy of another. anslysis. Moreover, the analysis may have inhereat bias as certain If one determines that these individuals are ignoring the rights of issues may be aforded more weight than ofhers by those per- ofbers by their actions. then one might reasonably argue that tbey forming the analysis. While the Utilitarian idea of balancing the are exhibiting a vice (eg. divhonesty, greed) that reflects a defipros against the cons is familiar to most as a system for judgrment, ciency in their moral character. On the ocher hand, if the use Big in this case the process of using it to assess the value of Big Data is Data by mecical authorities helps to prevent of manage disease. too complex to perform, inherently flawed by imprecise measure- then we may conclude that this peflects the virtuoas nature of those ment. and thwarted by societies seneral lack of understanding who do so. Hence, it all depends on what we conclude about the about what Big Data is and the depth to which is is being used to character and intent of those who employ Big Datat This means that affect their lives, Virtue Ethics can be arduous, because it requires that one be 4. X Sociti Conersct Theory and Dik Dato scrupulous in examining the action talken by somecone to deteranine if that action is characteristic of a virtuous person. Thut is, after all, the approuch that a virtuous person would take. Social Contract theory emphasizes the creation of regulations and rules that rational peopie would agree to accept because they are to everyone's mutisal beneflt - as long as everyone else follows 5. Conclusion the rules. However, there are often differences between sacieties relative to the rules they adopt to govem their lives. For example, Farope and the United staters the media. However, to more clearly understand bow ethics applies to Hig Data it is important to undertand the terants of the theories than in the United States, a variety of lans apply to that inform these virws. The ethical framarworks described herein sectors, like health and credit. In the European Union, each examine ethical behavior from a different perspective. they attempt to strictly enforce. Recenty, the United Sates and argaments about what is right or wroog using logical, rational arEurope reached an agreement over their differences about whar guments. One can use thein to understand and evaluate whecher level of privacy individuals can expect whea duta is shared between thry think the ase of Big Dara is morally sight. As Quine | in] noter. them. This pact provides constraints on the free flow of data be- workable ethical theories all take people ocher than the deciaion tween Eur