This article describes the challenges that women and women of color face in their quest to achieve and perform in leadership roles in work settings. We discuss the barri- ers that women encounter and specifically address the dimensions of gender and race and their impact on lead- ership. We identify the factors associated with gender evaluations of leaders and the stereotypes and other chal- lenges faced by White women and women of color. We use ideas concerning identity and the intersection of multiple identities to understand the way in which gender mediates and shapes the experience of women in the workplace. We conclude with suggestions for research and theory devel- opment that may more fully capture the complex experience of women who serve as leaders. Keywords: intersectionality, labyrinth, gendered racism, glass ceiling, stereotype threat T iger Woods refers to his race as "Cablinasian,' which combines Caucasian, Black, Native American (Indian), and Asian origins; specifically, he is one quarter Chinese, one quarter Thai, one quarter Black, one eighth Native American, and one eighth Dutch. This heri- tage illustrates how multiple racial and ethnic origins can exert a complex influence to create multiple identities. Moreover, his Black facial features influence others to perceive and treat him only as Black. For example, he was once kept from playing at a golf course in Georgia because he was treated as Black, although he is only one quarter Black. So despite the existence of multiple origins and identities, others often react to only a set of these identities, quite often the aspects of identity that are most visible and are situationally and culturally salient. Given the history of the "one drop" rule during the time of slavery in America, the Black identity will be emphasized by many, which will lead to discrimination. The one drop rule posits that having as little as one drop of blood from a Black or African American ancestor makes one a member of this race (Sweet, 2005). The example of Tiger Woods illustrates several im- portant issues relevant to women leaders. First, as a man, he has been active in searching for descriptors of his race, and he has been unwilling to let society define who he is. Second, he has acknowledged his multiple identities and emphasized their collective importance by creating a word that includes all of his racial backgrounds. Third, despite the diversity of his background and his history of athletic achievement, people often respond to him on the basis of only one of his identities, the Black identity. The recent election of President Barack Obama and the manner in which many pundits reacted exclusively to the Black por- tion of his identity demonstrate that this phenomenon is not unique. Unfortunately, we could not find any multiracial women who have achieved the high levels of recognizabil- ity of Tiger Woods and President Barack Obama, so we have used men to illustrate how biracial or multiple-race individuals have been treated. In this article, we discuss how ideas concerning gen- der, race, multiple identities, and the intersection of multi- ple identities intersectionality-can help in understand- ing the unique challenges faced by women, and especially women of color, who aspire to positions of leadership. We focus on the perceptions that others may have of these women as they strive to reach leadership positions. We conclude our analysis with recommendations for future research and theory development. Women and Women of Color in Leadership Leadership has been defined in many ways, with differ- ences in the definitions often reflecting the professional and personal orientations of the definers. Most definitions have in common a focus on a process of interpersonal influence that uses power and authority to encourage others to act to achieve goals (Yukl, 2009). Although men and leadership have been studied extensively, women, especially women of color, have been largely ignored in this research and theory development until recently (Chemers, 1997). Popu- lar textbooks on leadership, such as that by Yukl (2009), may devote a few pages to research examining women in leadership roles but ignore the influence of race and eth- nicity. A current problem is how to expand the number of women and women of color in leadership positions. In- creasing the number of women leaders is important for Janis V. Sanchez-Hucles and Donald D. Davis, Department of Psychol- ogy, Old Dominion University. We are grateful to the following individuals who made important contributions to this article: Shannon K. Meert, Randall D. Spain, Kurt L. Oborn, and Barbara Winstead. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Janis V. Sanchez-Hucles, Department of Psychology, Old Dominion Univer- sity, Norfolk, VA 23529-0267. E-mail: jsanchez@odu.edu Janis V. Sanchez- Hucles Photo by Chuck Thomas reasons beyond political correctness. At this time, the United States is not producing enough leaders to meet organizational demands, a shortage that is likely to become more acute with the upcoming retirement of the baby. boomers (Harris, Moran, & Moran, 2004; Treverton & Bikson, 2003). Women leaders can fill this void. Women comprise 51% of the labor force and provide a significant pool of potential leaders (Catalyst, 2005). Women predom- inate in lower level managerial ranks and are only margin- ally represented at the executive levels. Yet research and anecdotal reports suggest that women are highly suited for more advanced leadership positions (Catalyst, 2005; Rich- ardson & Loubier, 2008). The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2007) reported the following percentages of women in managerial posi- tions by ethnicity: Whites, 39%; African Americans, 31%; Asians, 46%; and Latinas, 22%. Currently, women fill only 2.5% of top offices (Catalyst, 2006). It also must be noted that Native American women are rarely mentioned in the leadership literature, as their numbers are so slight (Muller, 1998). Women accounted for only 14.7% of Fortune 500 board seats in 2005; of these positions, 79% were held by White women, and 21% were held by women of color (Catalyst, 2006). Women occupy only 24 (2.4%) of the CEO positions in the Fortune 1000 (Catalyst, 2006). This proportion has remained stable in the past decade, although the situation may slowly be changing (Ragins, Townsend, & Mattis, 1998). Barriers to the Advancement of Women Leaders Different terms have been used to characterize this slow advance of women leaders. Some call this barrier a glass ceiling (Hymowitz & Schellhardt, 1986). Others highlight thicker barriers posed by the racism combined with sexism that women of color encounter, using terms such as con- crete wall or sticky floor (Bell & Nkomo, 2001; Betters- Reed & Moore, 1995). More recently, the term labyrinth has been used to describe the uneven path of upward progression for women in organizations (Eagly & Carli, 2007). This trajectory involves diverse challenges, indirect forays, and ventures into foreign territory rather than fol- lowing a straight line to the top. Women can achieve leadership positions but only by carefully traversing com- plex paths as they confront issues associated with child care needs, racism, sexism, and discrimination on the basis of identity. Eagly and Carli (2007) asserted that to successfully negotiate the labyrinth, women are required to demonstrate both agentic and communal skills as well as create social capital. They often must combine assertive agency with the communal qualities of kindness, niceness, and helpfulness. The skill of creating social capital is derived from interact- ing with colleagues and establishing positive relationships. Women must participate in networking with both other women and men. Mentoring is the final requirement for developing social capital. A mentoring relationship can offer encouragement, acceptance, and friendship, which are key to achieving corporate success (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Barriers do not disappear for women after they reach the top. Haslam and Ryan (2008) examined the types of jobs that women are given when they are senior leaders. These authors observed that women are likely to find themselves dealing with situations that have high risk and that can potentially set them up for failure. Hence they are placed on glass cliffs (Hewlett et al., 2008). Hewlett and colleagues observed that many companies appoint a woman to the board after the firm experiences poor perfor- mance. Women then are blamed for the firm's decline, which was actually set in motion before they joined the company. Although men are also placed in challenging situations, women, and especially women of color, are typically more isolated, without mentors or a network of support, and are less able to garner the help that they might need when facing extraordinary challenges (Haslam & Ryan, 2008). Gender and Race in Leadership Early research on leadership ignored the role of demo- graphic differences such as gender and race, in part because it was largely conducted by White male researchers who were mostly uninterested in such differences. There was also a presumption of gender and racial equality in leader- ship (Chemers, 1997). This neglect is starting to be ad- dressed with greater attention to the influence of gender and race differences in leadership (e.g., Chin, Lott, Rice, & Sanchez-Hucles, 2007; Eagly, 2007; Rhode & Kellerman, 2007). Eagly and Carli (2007) asserted that there is a gender bias that exists such that men are associated with being leaders because they more commonly demonstrate asser- tive masculine traits that connote leadership, such as dom- inance, whereas women are less apt to be perceived as Donald D. Davis Photo by Chuck Thomas leaders because they are more likely to demonstrate com- munal qualities such as compassion. The male style of leadership has been deemed to consist of "command and control," whereas the female style is viewed as "facilitative and collaborative." Both forms of leadership are important. Many agree that a range of leadership styles is needed, yet women are often expected to lead within a narrow band described as the small range between not too wimpy and not too bitchy (Bronznick & Goldenhar, 2008)a Pro- crustean compromise that does not promote their leadership potential. Fletcher (2004) has noted the paradox that women are celebrated for demonstrating a new model of leadership but that they gain little from the celebration. One solution to the problem posed by the circumscribed role for women in leadership is for women to exercise a range of leadership styles. The second solution is to increase the number of women leaders so that the association of lead- ership style with gender is neutralized (Bronznick & Gold- enhar, 2008). The situation facing women of color is more complex than that faced by White women. Chief among the causes of additional complexity is the manner in which sexism has been emphasized without consideration of other forms of discrimination. White females, who share the same skin color as most male leaders, can more easily focus exclu- sively on gender discrimination and may overlook the influence of race and ethnicity on perceptions of leadership (Suyemoto & Ballou, 2007). Women of color can also face "gendered racism" when they are unable to separate the individual effects of each aspect of their identities (Blake, 1999). A woman who feels that she is experiencing dis- crimination must decide if this prejudice is due to race, ethnicity, gender, or some other dimension of her identity. If the woman is disabled or lesbian, the cause of discrim- ination becomes even more complex (Bowleg, 2008). As a result of such complex attributions, women may be unsure of which aspects of their identities are responsible for the reactions of others and, as a result, may have difficulty determining an appropriate response. Women who have experienced oppression that is due to multiple aspects of their identities carry the burden of complex construals about self that more privileged women do not need to bear. If a woman of color believes that she is experiencing discrimination, she must document and identify the specific form of discrimination (gender, ethnicity, or sexual orien- tation) in order to pursue legal redress. White women can afford to focus on gender differences, whereas women of color must often focus on all of the areas of minority difference for them and how these sources of identity influence their struggle to achieve success and feel com- fortable in majority-dominated organizations (Bell & Nkomo, 2001; Blake, 1999; Sanchez-Hucles & Sanchez, 2007). Women of color face additional forms of discrimina- tion in the workplace that White women may escape. Women of color receive lower pay than White men and women as well as men of color, and they must learn to maintain a positive self-image when confronted with mi- cro aggressions" that could halt promotions, mentoring, and success (Holvino & Blake-Beard, 2004). African American, Asian American, and Latino men and women are more likely to experience covert discrimination and subtle prejudice and to be forced into outgroup status and experience occupational segregation as a result, but women of color also carry the burden of racism and sexism com- bined (Browne & Askew, 2006; Combs, 2003; Hyun, 2005; Leung & Gupta, 2007). Underrepresentation of Women of Color in Leadership The number of racially and ethnically diverse leaders has increased, but such leaders are still underrepresented (Sanchez-Hucles & Sanchez, 2007). Some of the reasons given for the slow progress of women of color in leadership include lack of line experience, inadequate career opportu- nities, racial differences in speech and socialization, eth- nosexual stereotypes, "old boy networks," and tokenism (Oakley, 2000). Another reason for the slow advancement of women of color is the use of female stereotypes by male managers (Wellington, Kropf, & Gerkovich, 2003). Stereo- types can affect self-perceptions as well as the perceptions of others. The popular culture and the media perpetuate stereotypes of women of color that can make it difficult for them to be perceived as effective leaders. African women have been viewed as "Mammy, Sapphire, and Jezebel" (West, 1995), and Asian women as mail order brides (Rob- inson, 1996). Women leaders cite stereotyping as a significant bar- rier to advancement; these stereotypes are especially prob- lematic for racially and ethnically diverse women (Cata- lyst, 2005). Specifically, aversive racism or individuals' subconscious feelings of prejudice can alter how individu- als relate to women and minorities and who they recom- Here are some probes to get you started: How does it impact your perception of women leaders? How does this article reflect intersectionality and leadership? Is there anything here that confuses you or surprises you? Is anything in the article relatable? Or shocking?