Understand the concept and application of the beneficiary principle and exceptions

- The need for a human beneficiary - The rule in Saunders v Vautier - Trusts of imperfect obligations / purpose trust - recognised purposes (animals, monuments / tombs, fox hunting, private masses), perpetuity rule, need for a willing trustee - Judicial constructions - Re Denley's, Re Osoba / Re Bowes - Gifts to unincorporated associations - various theories how such gifts can be upheld including contractual theory.