What would be the effect of each of the following on Uptown Bank's excess reserves and loan-making ability if the bank had $600 million in deposits, a 5 percent reserve requirement, and actual reserves of $40 million?

a. The Federal Reserve sells $5 million in government securities to Uptown Bank

b. The reserve requirement increases from 5 percent to 6 percent.

c. The discount rate is increased.

d. The reserve requirement is lowered from 5 percent to 4 percent, and the Federal Reserve buys $10 million in government securities from the bank.