1. Why should researchers draft a working title early in the development of their projects?
2. Creswell (2017) argues that the question is notcana research topic be researched, butshoulda research topic be researched. Assess and explain why and how a topic for research is chosen: How does the researcher understand if the topiccan and shouldbe researched?
3. In yourown words, articulate the purpose of the review of literature and the forms that it can take?
4. Several computerized databases include ERIC, Google Scholar, PubMed, ProQuest, Sociological Abstracts, Social Sciences Citation Index, and PsycINFO. Choose one of these databases to examine and demonstrate its applicability to a research topic.
5. Describe the 7 steps in conducting a literature review.

reading material below.

Cchapter 2

Review of the Literature

Besides selecting a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods approach, the proposal or study designer also needs to review the literature about atopic. This literature review helps to determine whether the topic is worth studying, and it provides insight into ways in which the researcher can limit the scope to a needed area of inquiry.

This chapter continues the discussion about preliminary considerations before launching into a proposal or project. It begins with a discussion about selecting a topic and writing this topic down so that the researcher can continually reflect on it. At this point, researchers also need to consider whether the topiccanandshouldbe researched. Then the discussion moves into the actual process of reviewing the literature; addressing the general purpose for using literature in a study; and then turning to principles helpful in designing literature into qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies.

The Research Topic

Before considering what literature to use in a project, first identify a topic to study and reflect on whether it is practical and useful to undertake the study. The topic is the subject or subject matter of a proposed study, such as "faculty teaching," "organizational creativity," or "psychological stress." Describe the topic in a few words or in a short phrase. The topic becomes the central idea to learn about or to explore.

There are several ways that researchers gain some insight into their topics when they are initially planning their research (our assumption is that the topic is chosen by the researcher and not by an adviser or committee member). One way is to draft a brief working title to the study. We are surprised at how often researchers fail to draft a title early in the development of their projects. In our opinion, the working or draft title becomes a major road sign in research?a tangible idea that the researcher can keep refocusing on and changing as the project goes on (see Glesne, 2015; Glesne & Peshkin, 1992). It becomes an orienting device. We find that, in our research, this topic grounds us and provides a sign of what we are studying, as well as a sign useful for conveying to others the central notion of the study. When students first provide their research project ideas to us, we often ask them to supply a working title if they do not already have one written down on paper.

How would this working title be written? Try completing this sentence: "My study is about . . ." A response might be, "My study is about at-risk children in the junior high," or "My study is about helping college facultybecome better researchers." At this stage in the design, frame the answer to the question so that another scholar might easily grasp the meaning of the project. A common shortcoming of beginning researchers is that they frame their study in complex and erudite language. This perspective may result from reading published articles that have undergone numerous revisions before being set in print. Good, sound research projects begin with straightforward, uncomplicated thoughts that are easy to read and understand. Think about a journal article that you have read recently. If it was easy and quick to read, it was likely written in general language that many readers could easily identify with in a way that was straightforward and simple in overall design and conceptualization. As a project develops it will become more complicated.

Wilkinson (1991) provided useful advice for creating a title: Be brief and avoid wasting words. Eliminate unnecessary words, such as "An Approach to . . . ," "A Study of . . . ," and so forth. Use a single title or a double title. An example of a double title would be "An Ethnography: Understanding a Child's Perception of War." In addition to Wilkinson's thoughts, consider a title no longer than 12words, eliminate most articles and prepositions, and make sure that it includes the focus or topic of the study.

Another strategy for topic development is to pose the topic as a brief question. What question needs to be answered in the proposed study? A researcher might ask, "What treatment is best for depression?" "What does it mean to be Arabic in U.S. society today?" "What brings people to tourist sites in the Midwest?" When drafting questions such as these, focus on the key topic in the question as the major signpost for the study. Consider how this question might be expanded later to be more descriptive of your study (seeChapters 6and7on the purpose statement and research questions and hypotheses).

Actively elevating this topic to a research study calls for reflecting on whether the topic can and should be researched. A topiccanbe researched if a researcher has participants willing to serve in the study. It also can be researched if the investigator has resources such as collecting data over a sustained period of time and using available computer programs to help in the analysis of data.

The question ofshouldis a more complex matter. Several factors might go into this decision. Perhaps the most important are whether the topic adds to the pool of research knowledge in the literature available on the topic, replicates past studies, lifts up the voices of underrepresented groups or individuals, helps address social justice, or transforms the ideas and beliefs of the researcher.

A first step in any project is to spend considerable time in the library examining the research on a topic (strategies for effectively using the library and library resources appear later in this chapter). This point cannot be overemphasized. Beginning researchers may advance a great study that is complete in every way, such as in the clarity of research questions, the comprehensiveness of data collection, and the sophistication of statistical analysis. But the researcher may garner little support from faculty committees or conferenceplanners because the study does not add anything new to the body of research. Ask, "How does this project contribute to the literature?" Consider how the study might address a topic that has yet to be examined, extend the discussion by incorporating new elements, or replicate (or repeat) a study in new situations or with new participants. Contributing to the literature may also mean how the study adds to an understanding of a theory or extends a theory (seeChapter 3), or how the study provides a new perspective or "angle" to the existing literature, for example, by

• Studying an unusual location (e.g., rural America)
• Examining an unusual group of participants (e.g., refugees)
• Taking a perspective that may not be expected and reverses the expectation (e.g., why marriages do work rather than do not work)
• Providing novel means of collecting data (e.g., collect sounds)
• Presenting results in unusual ways (e.g., graphs that depict geographical locations)
• Studying a timely topic (e.g., immigration issues) (Creswell, 2016)

The issue ofshouldthe topic be studied also relates to whether anyone outside of the researcher's own immediate institution or area would be interested in the topic. Given a choice between a topic that might be of limited regional interest or one of national interest, we would opt for the latter because it would have wide appeal to a much broader audience. Journal editors, committee members, conference planners, and funding agencies all appreciate research that reaches a broad audience. Finally, theshouldissue also relates to the researcher's personal goals. Consider the time it takes to completea project, revise it, and disseminate the results. All researchers should consider how the study and its heavy commitment of time will pay off in enhancing career goals, whether these goals relate to doing more research, obtaining a future position, or advancing toward a degree.

Before proceeding with a proposal or a study, one needs to weigh these factors and ask others for their reaction to a topic under consideration. Seek reactions from colleagues, noted authorities in the field, academic advisers, and faculty committee members. We often have students bring to us a one-page sketch of their proposed project that includes the problem or issue leading to a need for the study, the central research question they plan on asking, the types of data they will collect, and the overall significance of their study.

The Literature Review

Once the researcher identifies a topic that can and should be studied, the search can begin for related literature on the topic. The literature reviewaccomplishes several purposes. It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the one being undertaken. It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature, filling in gaps and extending prior studies (Cooper, 2010; Marshall & Rossman, 2016). It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study as well as a benchmark for comparing the results with other findings. All or some of these reasons may be the foundation for writing the scholarly literature into a study (see Boote & Beile, 2005, for a more extensive discussion of purposes for compiling a literature review in research). Studies need to add to the body of literature on a topic, and literature sections in proposals are generally shaped from the larger problem to the narrower issue that leads directly into the methods of a study.

The Use of the Literature

Beyond the question of why literature is used is the additional issue of how it is used in research and proposals. It can assume various forms. Our best advice is to seek the opinion of your adviser or faculty members as to how they would like to see the literature addressed. We generally recommend to our advisees that the literature review in a proposal or project be brief and provide a summary of the major studies on the research problem; it does not need to be fully developed and comprehensive at this point, since faculty may ask for major changes in the study at the proposal meeting. In this model, the literature review is shorter?say 20 to30pages in length?and tells the reader that the student is aware of the literature on the topic and the latest writings. Another approach is to develop a detailed outline of the topics and potential references that will later be developed into an entire chapter, usually the second, titled "Literature Review," which might run from 20 to60pages or so.

The literature review in a journal article is an abbreviated form of that found in a dissertation or master's thesis. It typically is contained in a section called "Related Literature" and follows the introduction to a study. This is the pattern for quantitative research articles in journals. For qualitative research articles, the literature review may be found in a separate section, included in the introduction, or threaded throughout the study. Regardless of the form, another consideration is how the literature might be reviewed, depending on whether a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approach has been selected.

In general, the literature review can take several forms. Cooper (2010) discussed four types: literature reviews that (a) integrate what others have done and said, (b) criticize previous scholarly works, (c) build bridges between related topics, and (d) identify the central issues in a field. With the exception of criticizing previous scholarly works, most dissertations and theses serve to integrate the literature, organize it into a series of related topics (often from general topics to narrower ones), and summarize the literature by pointing out the central issues.

Inqualitativeresearch, inquirers use the literature in a manner consistent with the assumptions of learning from the participant, not prescribing the questions that need to be answered from the researcher's standpoint. One of the chief reasons for conducting a qualitative study is that the study is exploratory. This usually means that not much has been written about the topic or the population being studied, and the researcher seeks to listen to participants and build an understanding based on what is heard.

However, the use of the literature in qualitative research varies considerably. In theoretically oriented studies, such as ethnographies or critical ethnographies, the literature on a cultural concept or a critical theory is introduced early in the report or proposal as an orienting framework. In grounded theory, case studies, and phenomenological studies, literature is less often used to set the stage for the study.

With an approach grounded in learning from participants and variation by type, there are several models for incorporating the literature review into a qualitative study. We offer three placement locations, and it can be used in any or all of these locations. As shown inTable 2.1, the researcher might include the literature review in the introduction. In this placement, the literature provides a useful backdrop for the problem or issue that has led to the need for the study, such as who has been writing about it, who has studied it, and who has indicated the importance of studying the issue. This framing of the problem is, of course, contingent on available studies. One can find illustrations of this model in many qualitative studies employing different types of inquiry strategy.

Use of the Literature The literature is used to frame the problem in the introduction to the study. The literature is presented in a separate section as a review of the literature. The literature is presented in the study at the end; it becomes a basis for comparing and contrastinc ndings of the qualitative - Table 3.1 Using Literature in a Qualitative Study Criteria There must be some literature available. This approach is often acceptable to an audience most familiar with the traditional postpositivist approach to literature review -s. This approach is most suitable for the inductive process of qualitative research; the literature does not guide and direct the study but becomes an aid once patterns or categories have been identied. Examples of Suitable Strate Typically. literature is used in all qualitative studies, regardless of type. This approach is used with those studies employing a strong theory and literature background at the beginning of a study, such as ethnographies and critical theory studies. This approach is used in all types of qualitative designs. but it is most popular with grounded theory, where one contrasts and compares a theory with other theories found in the literature. Figure 2.1 An Example of a Literature Map Procedural Justice In Organizations" Justice in Justice Perceptions Organizational Formation Justice Effects Change Explanations Outcomes Trust Motives Knowledge Masterson, Lewis, Konovsky Tyler, 1994 Schappe, 1996 Goldman, and Taylor, 2000 and Pugh, 1994 Divestiture's Gopinath and Past History Becker, 2000 Lawson and Angle. 1998 Organizational Organizational Organizational Climates Structures Schinke, Citizenship Support Naumann and Behaviors Moorman, Blakely, Bennett, 2000 Ambrose, and Moorman, 1991 and Nichoff, 1998 Leadership Cropanzano, 2000 Relocation Wiesenfeld, Daly, 1995 Brockner, and Thibault, 2000 Voice Unjust Treatment Bles and Shapiro, 1998: Dailey and Kirk, 1992: Hunton, Hall, and Price, 1998; Kickul, 2001, Tepper, 2000 Pay Freeze Strategle Lind, Kanter, and Earley, 1990 Schaubroeck, Decision Making May, and Kim and Brown, 1994 Mauborgne, 1998 Need to Study Procedural Justice and Culture