A study was done to determine whether the use of “clickers” as an instructional method would improve students’ test performance in an educational psychology class (Mayer et al., 2009). In the clicker class (academic year 2005–2006), students used clickers to respond to multiple-choice questions during lectures. In the paper-and-pencil class (2006–2007), students responded to multiple-choice questions during lectures using a paper-and-pencil format. In the control condition (2004–2005), the instructor did not present multiple-choice questions in lectures.

Results for the midterm and final exams indicated that students in the clicker class performed better than students in the paper-and-pencil and control classes. The researchers concluded that the use of clickers during lectures helps students to perform better on tests, and suggested that the clickers help students to engage in appropriate cognitive processing during learning.

A. What evidence is present in this summary to meet the conditions for a causal inference between the instructional method and students’ test performance? What evidence is lacking? (Be sure to describe the three conditions for a causal inference.)

B. Identify the four goals of the scientific method and explain whether each is met on the basis of findings from this study.