Suppose that we have a study of messages printed on supermarket fliers. We want to know if what people do with fliers is independent of the message that is on them. If the message has no effect on a shopper’s behavior, the probability that a flier carrying a “do not litter” message would end up in the trash was .033. Suppose also that 4.5% of those messages actually ended up in the trash. What does this tell you about the effectiveness of messages?