Eldredge and Gould have argued that the fossil record exhibits intermittent dynamics, which they named punctuated equilibrium [169]. That adaptive evolutionary dynamics is able to generate intermittent abrupt upheavals was argued in [473] to be of relevance also to financial crashes.
(a) Both organisms and companies viewed individually are born and die at a more or less constant rate. How does intermittent macrodynamics co-exist with smooth gradual dynamics at the level of the individuals?
(b) What might be the mechanism in adaptive dynamics that generates intermittency at the macro level?
(c) If adaptive dynamics inevitably leads to intermittency, will it then be impossible to avoid or mitigate financial crashes?

(d) List examples of intermittent dynamics and discuss to what extent theymay contain elements of adaptive dynamics. For example, the development of human societies through revolutions and wars.