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earth sciences
geology
Questions and Answers of
Geology
In a “Peanuts” cartoon strip, Lucy is decrying the erosion process, saying, “Billions of people scrape their shoes as they walk along the ground, day after day, wearing this ol’ earth down to
Could poor engineering of structures, such as dams, result in disasters?
Give an example of a submarine landslide (submarine slump).
“Running water, or surface runoff as in Fig. 8.1 of the previous chapter, means river water.” Is this a correct statement?
When does precipitation become surface runoff (Fig. 8.1)?
What is sheet wash or sheet flow?
Compared to rivers, do these thin sheets of water contribute significantly to erosion?
What is the major role of rivers in the erosion process?
What could you reply to a friend who says, “Surely the Mississippi River does more erosion than does sheetwash!”
Is the amount of sediment removed from the land surface by erosion significant?
Calculate the annual rate of erosion, based on the data in the previous question.
Several factors affect the amount of erosion by running water that can occur in a given area, but two are generally the most important. Name them.
What types of sediment constitute the total load of a stream?
What is the difference between the load and the capacity of a stream?
What is the competence of a stream?
The gradient of a stream can be defined as the drop in stream elevation along its course and is expressed in meters per kilometer or in feet per mile. A related concept is the slope of a stream,
Stream velocity is complex. (a) What would happen to the velocity of a stream at a given point on the stream if the slope decreased? (b) If the angle of the slope increased? (c) If the roughness of
Which stream, A or B, should have the highest velocity and erode the most if the other factors are equal?
The previous problem suggests that a stream’s velocity might change frequently. What if the velocity remained rather constant, as it commonly does, during a given period of time?
How does vegetation affect the amount of runoff?
What is the concept of a graded stream?
When do rivers do most of their work of transporting sediment?
What would happen to the sediment load of a stream if the velocity of the stream decreased considerably?
What would happen to the dissolved load of a stream if the velocity decreased?
What is the discharge of a stream?
Imagine you are trying to cross a fast stream that has a constant width. The water is moving at the same velocity along the straight stretch which you must cross. The stream seems to be waist deep
How does the discharge of a stream affect the amount of sediment that the stream can carry?
At what point along a stream’s course should the discharge be the greatest, and why?
Figure 9.1 is a generalized longitudinal profile of a river, with elevations above sea level plotted against distance from the mouth of the river. What does it show?
It was stated that the discharge of a stream increases downstream. Since Q = WDV, would the velocity increase downstream as well?
If the velocity does not increase downstream, as stated in the previous question, what will have to change to accommodate the greater volume of water (i.e., discharge)?
How are stream valleys formed?
How do stream channels become longer?
What is a drainage basin?
(a) What are drainage divides and continental divides?
How large is the drainage basin of the Mississippi River?
Name and describe two types of flow in water (Fig. 9.3).
How is turbulent flow a factor in the suspension of clay, silt, and fine sand grains?
Where on the cross-section of the stream channel shown in Fig. 9.4 is the place of maximum velocity and why?
In a bend in a stream, as in Fig. 9.4, where will the stream deposit sediment, and where will it erode sediment?
How do river bends, or meanders, move or migrate?
(a) Do meanders migrate small distances or large distances?
Do rivers erode laterally as well as downward?
Where is most of the world’s fresh water?
Where is most of the glacial ice located today?
What are the two main types of glaciers?
What portion of the earth’s land surface is covered by ice today
What is the major requirement for a glacier to form?
A friend of yours has heard that glaciers exist only in areas of extreme cold, colder than 30°F below zero. Is your friend correct?
Are valley glaciers found only in polar latitudes?
How does snow turn to ice?
See the previous problem. Is the result of that process a glacier?
How does ice move, thereby becoming a glacier?
How fast do glaciers move?
Describe the difference in the behavior of an advancing glacier, a stagnant glacier, and a retreating glacier.
Two mountain climbers in the Swiss Alps were caught in a large avalanche of snow which came to rest on an active glacier. What do you think happened to them?
Figure l0.l is a generalized longitudinal section of a valley glacier. Label arid explain the zone of accumulation and the zone of wastage or ablation.
What processes lead to the accumulation of snow and ice on a glacier?
In the zone of wastage or ablation in the lower reaches of a valley glacier or at latitudes farther from the poles in the case of continental glaciers, what processes cause the ablation?
What relationships between accumulation and ablation, as in Fig. 10.1, will cause a glacier to advance or retreat?
How do glaciers obtain their loads of sediment?
Valley glaciers enlarge their sediment load in additional ways to those listed in the previous question. How?
What commonly happens to a glacier that flows into a lake or ocean?
Why are icebergs even more dangerous than they might appear to be?
How are icebergs a factor in sedimentation of glacial debris?
Interpret Fig. 10.2 in terms of the velocity of flowing glacial ice.
When do valley glaciers have their greatest velocity?
What are crevasses, and where in the glacier of Fig. 10.1 are they located?
If you were an Antarctic explorer and fell into a hidden, snow-covered crevass on a glacier that is 200 m (660 ft) thick, would you fall all the way to the base of the glacier?
See Fig. 10.3. Do the straight lines or striations tell which way the ice that abraded the rock was moving?
From Fig. 10.3, determine in which direction the glacial ice that abraded the bedrock exposure was moving.
What was removed from the rock exposure of Fig. 10.3 during abrasion by the overriding ice?
On Fig. 10, 4, identify and define a glacial cirque.
On Fig. 10.4, identify and define a glacial horn.
On Fig. 10.4, identify and define an arete.
On Fig. 10.4, identify and define a hanging valley.
On Fig. 10.4, identify and define a terminal moraine.?
On Fig. 10.4, identify and define a recessional moraine.?
On Fig. 10.4, identify and define a lateral moraine.
On Fig. 10.4, how far did the glacier on the left advance? Give two lines of evidence.
What existed in the vicinity of the valley on the left side of Fig. 10.4 before glaciation, and what is the evidence?
On Fig. 10.5, an area once covered by a continental glacier, identify the terminal moraine.
On Fig. 10.5, identify and define a ground moraine.
On Fig. 10.5, what is feature D? Explain its origin.
On Fig. 10.5, identify and define an outwash plain.
On Fig. 10.5, what is feature B? Explain its origin.
On Fig. 10.5, what is feature E? Explain its origin.
On the basis of Fig. 10.5, how can one distinguish between ice-deposited and meltwaterdeposited sediment?
Define glacial till, and locate it on Fig. 10.5.
From Fig. 10.5, describe three lines of evidence that could be used to ascertain the maximum line of advance of a glacier.
Do glaciers ride up and over large obstacles in their paths?
When do glaciers deposit their loads of sediment?
Define glacial drift.
Is the front of a continental glacier a big, massive, rather straight ice wall?
Lakes are commonly the result of glaciation, as in the upper Midwest portion of the United States and in Canada. How are they formed?
Did the continental glaciation of North America during the last Great Ice Age enhance or hinder the search for mineral deposits?
What is a fjord?
If accumulation on a glacier exceeds ablation, what will be the result?
What would happen if the glaciers of Antarctica were to undergo a rapid increase in velocity and flow into the surrounding ocean?
Is ice a mineral, and is glacier ice a metamorphic rock?
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