Catherine Ruby, a doctoral student at New York University, conducted an online survey to ascertain the reasons that international students chose to attend graduate school in the United States. One of several dependent variables that she considered was reputation; students were asked to rate the importance in their decision of factors such as the reputation of the institution, the institution and program’s academic accreditations, and the reputation of the faculty. Students rated factors on a 1–5 scale, and then all reputation ratings were averaged to form a summary score for each respondent. For each of the following scenarios, state the independent variable with its levels (the dependent variable is reputation in all cases). Then state what kind of an ANOVA she would use.

a. Ruby compared the importance of reputation among graduate students in different types of programs: arts and sciences, education, law, and business.

b. Imagine that Ruby followed these graduate students for 3 years and assessed their rating of reputation once a year.

c. Ruby compared international students working toward a master’s, a doctoral, or a professional degree (e.g., MBA) on reputation.

d. Imagine that Ruby followed international students from their master’s program to their doctoral program to their postdoctoral fellowship, assessing their ratings of reputation once at each level of their training.