For each of the following situations, state the two competing hypotheses to be tested using words rather than mathematical symbols or formulas.

a. A company designs a program aimed at helping people stop smoking. They design a study aimed at testing the program.

b. A study wished to examine whether using seat belts affected the severity of injuries sustained by children in automobile accidents (Osberg & Di Scala, 1992).

c. A researcher hypothesizes that the more drivers use cellular phones, the greater the likelihood of getting into a traffic accident.

d. “It was hypothesized that . . . infants who spent greater amounts of time in center-based care would demonstrate more advanced exploratory behaviors than infants who did not spend as much time in center-based care” (Schuetze et al., 1999, p. 269).

e. “It is expected that achievement motivation will be a positive predictor of academic success” (Busato et al., 2000, p. 1060).

f. “The purpose of our study was to gain a better understanding of the relationship between social functioning and problem drinking. . . .We predicted that problem drinkers would endorse more social deficits than nonproblem drinkers” (Lewis & O’Neill, 2000, pp. 295−296).