For each of the research situations below, identify the two independent variables and indicate the type of A × B design (e.g., 2 × 2, 3 × 3).

a. An instructor teaches two courses: one taught in the typical classroom setting and one taught online. She believes students taking the classroom course are more likely to keep up with assigned course readings than students in the online course; furthermore, she believes this difference is greater for students living off-campus than on-campus.

b. When a child misbehaves, who is responsible for the child’s bad behavior? A family therapist believes that parents are more likely to attribute responsibility to the child than to themselves, particularly when the child is a teenager rather than an adolescent.

c. Before taking an exam, do you engage in rituals like kissing a luck charm or wearing a particular piece of clothing? Two researchers (Rudski & Edwards, 2007) hypothesized that students engage in rituals more when an exam is important (vs. unimportant) to students’ grade in the course, as well as when an exam was seen as “very difficult” (as opposed to “easy” or “somewhat difficult”).