Patrol officers often work beyond the direct supervision of sergeants. For example, Smith and Klein found that supervisors were present at only 24 percent of interpersonal dispute calls in a 1977 observational study of police in Rochester, New York, St. Louis, Missouri, and Tampa, Florida. 202 Would reducing the span of control increase the level of supervision over members of the operating core? Absent direct supervision, what other methods can police organizations use to ensure officer compliance with department directives and policies?