A patient named Jen visits Dr. Jan. Dr. Jan is nearly certain that Jen only has a cold. But because Dr. Jan is afraid of malpractice lawsuits, she orders an extensive battery of tests just to make sure that Jen can never claim—if she turns out to have something more severe—that Dr. Jan shirked her duties as a medical professional. Dr. Jan’s behavior is an example of:

a. Asymmetric information.

b. Fee-for-service.

c. Defensive medicine.

d. Positive externalities.