4. Understanding different policy options to correct for negativeexternalities Carbon dioxide emissions have been linked to degradation of air quality. The following table lists some potential regulations targeting the amount of airborne carbon dioxide. For each policy listed, identify whether it is a command-and-control policy (regulation), tradable permit system, corrective subsidy, or corrective tax. Tradable Command-and- Permit Corrective Corrective Public Policy Control Policy System Subsidy Tax The government charges factories $580 for every ton of carbon dioxide they emit. O O O O The government orders every factory to adopt a new technology, which O reduces carbon-dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. O O O Trees take carbon dioxide out of the air and convert it to oxygen, so the government funds a tree-planting initiative by offering $580 to any citizen O O O O who plants a tree. The government limits total carbon-dioxide emissions by all factories to 230,000 tons per year. Each individual factory is given the right to emit O 270 tons of carbon dioxide, and factories may buy and sell these rights in O O O a marketplace.5. Correcting for negative externalities Regulation versus tradablepermits Suppose a municipality votes to reduce the combined pollution introduced by three local companies. Presently, each firm creates 4 units of pollution in the areaJ for a total of 12 pollution units. The government can reduce total pollution in the area to 6 units by choosing between the following two methods: Methods to Reduce Pollution 1. The government imposes pollution standards using regulation. 2. The government issues tradable pollution permits. The costs faced by each rm are different, so it is more difficult for some rms to reduce pollution than others. The following table shows the cost faced by each firm to eliminate each unit of pollution. Assume that the cost of eliminating all 4 units of pollution {that is, reducing pollution to zero) is prohibitively expensive for all three firms. Cost of Eliminating the... First Unit of Pollution Second Unit of Pollution Third Unit of Pollution Firm (Dollars) (Dollars) (Dollars) Firm A 80 100 150 Firm B 450 800 1,050 Firm C 95 120 200 Next, suppose that two government ofcials proposed alternative plans that would reduce pollution by 6 units. Method 1: Regulation The rst government employee suggests reducing pollution through regulation. To meet the pollution goal, the government requires each firm to reduce its pollution by 2 units. Method 1: Regulation The first government employee suggests reducing pollution through regulation. To meet the pollution goal, the government requires each firm to reduce its pollution by 2 units. Complete the following table with the total cost to each firm of reducing its pollution by 2 units. Total Cost of Eliminating Two Units of Pollution Firm (Dollars) Firm A Firm B Firm C Method 2: Tradable PermitsMethod 2: Tradable Permits Meanwhile, the other employee proposes using a different strategyr to achieve the government's goal of reducing pollution in the area from 12 units to 6 units. This employee suggests that the government issue two pollution permits to each rm. For each permit a firm has in its possession, it can emit 1 unit of pollution. Firms are free to trade pollution permits with one another (that is, buy and sell them) as long as both firms can agree on a price. For example, iffirm A agrees to sell a permit to rm B at an agreedupon price, then rm B would end up with three permits and would need to reduce its pollution by only 1 unit while firm A would end up with only one permit and would have to reduce its pollution by 3 units. Assume the negotiation and exchange of permits are costless. Because rm B has high pollutionreduction costs, it thinks it might be better off buying a pen'nitfrom rm A and a permit from rm C so that it doesn't have to reduce its own pollution emissions. At which of the following prices are both rm A and firm C willing to sell one of their permits to rm B? Check all! that apply. D $102 D $154 D $179 D $410 D $703 Suppose the the government has set the trading price of a permit at $182 per permit. Complete the following table with the action each firm will take at this permit price, the amount of pollution each firm will eliminate, and the amount it costs each firm to reduce pollution to the necessary level. If a firm is willing to buy two permits, assume that it buys one permit from each of the other firms. (Hint: Do not include the prices paid for permits in the cost of reducing pollution.) Initial Pollution Permit Final Amount of Pollution Cost of Pollution Allocation Eliminated Reduction Firm (Units of pollution) Action (Units of pollution) (Dollars) Firm A 2 Firm B Firm C Regulation Versus Tradable Permits Determine the total cost of eliminating six units of pollution using both methods, and enter the amounts in the following table. (Hint: You might need to get information from previous tasks to complete this table.) Total Cost of Eliminating Six Units of Pollution Proposed Method (Dollars) Regulation Tradable Permits In this case, you can conclude that eliminating pollution is costly to society when the government regulates each firm to eliminate a certain amount of pollution than when it allocates pollution permits that can be bought and sold.Complete the following table with the action each firm will take at this permit price, the amount of pollution each firm will eliminate, and the amount it costs each firm to reduce pollution to the necessary level. If a firm is willing to buy two permits, assume that it buys one permit from each of the other firms. (Hint: Do not include the prices paid for permits in the cost of reducing pollution.) Initial Pollution Permit Final Amount of Pollution Cost of Pollution Allocation Eliminated Reduction Firm (Units of pollution) Action (Units of pollution) (Dollars) Firm A 2 Firm B 2 Buy one permit Firm C Buy two permits Regulation Versus Tradable Permits Don't buy/sell Sell one permit Sell two permits Determine the total cost of eliminating six units of pollution using both methods, and enter the amounts in the following table. (Hint: You might need to get information from previous tasks to complete this table.)Determine the total cost of eliminating six units of pollution using both methods, and enter the amounts in the following table. (Hint: You might need to get information from previous tasks to complete this table.) Total Cost of Eliminating Six Units of Pollution Proposed Method (Dollars) Regulation less Tradable Permits more In this case, you can conclude that eliminating pollution is costly to society when the government regulates each firm to eliminate a certain amount of pollution than when it allocates pollution permits that can be bought and sold.6. Achieving lower pollution Suppose a politician is critical of a government pollution permit policy that they say allows companies to buy and sell the right to pollute. They argue that the public's right to breathe clean air and the health of the planet require real regulation instead of this type of government policy. Which of the following arguments best describes why the majority of economists would disagree with their statement? O Clean air is a fundamental right, and government regulation will allow too much pollution. O Tradable pollution permits in a free market is typically more efficient than government regulation. O A corrective tax would result in a more efficient outcome than either tradable permits or government regulation would. O The environment is so important that it should be protected as much as possible, regardless of the cost