American Journal of Business Antecedents of consumer animosity and the role of product involvement on purchase intentions Ji Eun Park, Sung-Joon Yoon, Article information: To cite this document: Ji Eun Park, Sung-Joon Yoon, (2017) "Antecedents of consumer animosity and the role of product involvement on purchase intentions", American Journal of Business, Vol. 32 Issue: 1, pp.42-57, https://doi.org/10.1108/AJB-08-2016-0028 Permanent link to this document: https://doi.org/10.1108/AJB-08-2016-0028 Downloaded on: 04 October 2017, At: 09:00 (PT) References: this document contains references to 61 other documents. 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Downloaded by IQRA UNIVERSITY At 09:00 04 October 2017 (PT) Antecedents of consumer animosity and the role of product involvement on purchase intentions Ji Eun Park Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA, and Sung-Joon Yoon College of Economics and Business Administration, Kyonggi University, Suwon, Republic of Korea Abstract Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to further our understanding of the sources of consumer animosity and the moderating role of product involvement on purchase intentions. Design/methodology/approach - Animosity is examined in the context of South Korean consumers' purchase intentions toward Japanese products. A structural equation model was estimated in Lisrel 8.80 to assess the proposed model. Findings - The results offer evidence that consumer ethnocentrism and susceptibility to normative influence have a positive relationship with animosity while cosmopolitanism has a negative relationship with animosity. Furthermore, animosity negatively influences intentions to purchase for high-involvement products, but not for low-involvement products. Practical implications - International marketing managers can better identify the risk that consumer animosity poses to their products and services based on level of product involvement and characteristics of the market segment. Originality/value - This study offers clarity to the understanding of animosity by examining additional antecedents of animosity that reflect different world views. It also provides an exception to the previous findings that in general animosity has a negative impact on consumers' willingness to buy products of countries for which consumers have animosity. In other words, the effect of animosity on purchase intention of products from a disliked country depends on the degree of involvement. Keywords Cosmopolitanism, Ethnocentrism, Product involvement, Consumer animosity, Susceptibility to normative influence Paper type Research paper Consumer animosity has gained considerable attention in the international marketing literature as a determinant of foreign product purchase behavior. The developing research stream on consumer animosity illustrates that feelings of animosity from a given country's political, economic, and social past are associated with their negative effects on foreign products, consequently bringing decrease of consumption. The literature has confirmed the work of Klein et al. (1998) in different contexts (e.g. Hoffmann et al., 2011; Huang et al., 2010; Klein, 2002; Leong et al., 2008; Nijssen and Douglas, 2004), extended the animosity model by investigating market or individual characteristics that impact animosity (e.g. Klein and Ettenson, 1999; Ma et al., 2012; Shoham et al., 2006), and refined the animosity construct (i.e. Jung et al., 2002; Ang et al., 2004; Riefler and Diamantopoulos, 2007; Harmeling et al., 2015). However, animosity research has been mainly confined to general products without identifying product type or highinvolvement products, such as cars, television, computers, or appliances. Different product category on purchase intention of foreign products with the negative impact of animosity remains unexplored. As such, this paper's contribution is its proposal American Journal of Business Vol. 32 No. 1, 2017 pp. 42-57 Emerald Publishing Limited 1935-5181 DOI 10.1108/AJB-08-2016-0028 Received 31 August 2016 Revised 27 October 2016 Accepted 17 January 2017 The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at: www.emeraldinsight.com/1935-5181.htm 42 AJB 32,1 Downloaded by IQRA UNIVERSITY At 09:00 04 October 2017 (PT) that international marketers can adopt to deal with animosity depending on product category: low involvement vs high involvement. As globalization of the social, political, and economic environments continues in tandem with the self-interested pursuits of individual nations, the resulting geopolitical externalities may foster more consumer animosity, thus improving our understanding of consumer animosity and how it affects purchase intentions becomes valuable for both academicians and practitioners. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to further our understanding of the moderating role of product involvement on purchase intention and the sources of consumer animosity. More specifically, the objectives of this study are threefold. First is to examine if the effect of animosity is consistent across product categories of differing levels of involvement. While animosity has been shown to affect willingness to buy (e.g. Klein et al., 1998), we examine the role of product involvement on intention to purchase. Riefler and Diamantopoulos (2007) note that nearly half the studies examined in the animosity literature focused on the effects of animosity on products in general from a specific country. The remainder examined effects on general products (e.g. Harmeling et al., 2015; Lee and Lee, 2013) or specific product categories, typically high-involvement goods such as TVs, cameras, stereos, laptop, and automobiles (e.g. Klein, 2002; Klein et al., 1998; Nijssen and Douglas, 2004; Fong et al., 2013, 2015). Riefler and Diamantopoulos (2007) further point out that only by examining specific product categories can it then be determined if animosity can influence all product purchases. The second objective of this paper is to bring more clarity to the understanding of animosity by exploring additional antecedents of animosity, specifically cosmopolitanism, consumer ethnocentrism, and susceptibility to normative influence (SNI). The third objective is to provide guidelines to international marketing managers who can better devise advertising strategies and branding plans for their international markets. The remainder of the paper proceeds as follows. First, we review world culture theory which characterizes the environment which motivates individuals to consider their place in the world with respect to other societies. Next we discuss each of the constructs of interest and the theoretical relationships among the constructs in order to develop hypotheses. Then the research method and sources of data are described, and the results and implications for management and research follow. For this research we have chosen to study animosity in the context of South Korea (hereafter referred to as simply "Korea") toward Japan. Theoretical foundations World culture theory World culture theory is a sociological theory that refers to how individuals apply meaning to living in the world as a single place (Robertson, 1992). Robertson (1992) describes globalization as not only the compression of the world, i.e., ease and frequency of cross-cultural interaction, but also as the "intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole" (p. 8). Thus, an increased consciousness of the world as a single place prompts individuals to adopt different views of world order that vary from a collection of closed societies to that of a single "global village." In this worldview, the individual views the world with the potential for becoming a single community adopting all of humankind as a point of reference rather than individual nations or societies. It follows logically then that individuals who have adopted such a global perspective would be less likely to exhibit strong negative feelings or animosity toward national groups because the very idea of national groups contradicts the overall perspective that all humans belong to a single community. This type of post-nationalist view suggests that the actions of governments (e.g. war, embargoes, etc.) would be less likely to influence individual attitudes toward that nation's people, firms and its products. In the current study, the constructs such as cosmopolitanism and consumer ethnocentrism are posited to reflect such a worldview with cosmopolitanism indicating an unbiased 43 Consumer animosity and product involvement Downloaded by IQRA UNIVERSITY At 09:00 04 October 2017 (PT) processing of foreign cultural experiences (Cannon and Yaprak, 2002) and consumer ethnocentrism indicating the lack of an openness to foreign-made products (Shimp and Sharma, 1987). The subjective norms of the cultural group should play an important role to reflect such a worldview since perceived group norms have been shown to predict attitudes (Terry and Hogg, 1996). In other words, consumers form attitudes toward a world depending on subjective norms embedded in the country. Thus, we also examine SNI to account for subjective norms and the prevailing public opinion in the country of study. In brief, world culture theory describes a post-nationalist view of humanity and offers an overarching explanation for the relationship between the three constructs of interest with animosity. Discussion and hypotheses for each of the antecedents are discussed next. Animosity Klein et al. (1998) introduced the concept of consumer animosity and conceptually defined it as "remnants of antipathy related to previous or ongoing military, political or economic events." Klein et al. (1998) empirically showed that animosity had a negative impact on consumers' willingness to buy products of countries for which consumers have animosity. They also found that the negative feelings did not distort consumers' quality evaluations of the concerned products. Since then, many studies replicated and validated the behavioral impact of animosity construct in the different context (e.g. Nijssen and Douglas, 2004). For example, Witkowski (2000) showed that economic animosity and political disputes decreased American consumers' willingness to buy Chinese products and Nijssen and Douglas (2004) reported that economic rivalry and war animosity decreased Dutch consumers' willingness to buy German products. More recently, Lebanese consumers' animosity toward the USA had negative impact on wiliness to buy American products in Middle East and North Africa (the MENA region) (Mrad et al., 2014). Research has also been undertaken to identify different types and dimensions of animosity. Klein et al. (1998) identified two major types of animosity, war animosity and economic animosity, but also suggested that animosity can have many other different sources. Other researchers have proposed political and diplomatic issues as sources of animosity. Reasons for such political and diplomatic animosity include governmental corruption and national diplomatic policies (Witkowski, 2000); different official position about the war (in Iraq) (Amine, 2008); and nuclear testing (Ettenson and Klein, 2005). Moreover, new concepts of animosity were investigated such as intra-country animosity between two ethnic groups, Jewish Israelis' reactions to Arab Israelis (Shoham et al., 2006; Rose et al., 2009), regional animosity representing individuals' preference for their own geographic region (Shimp et al., 2004), historical animosity referring to strong antagonistic emotions accumulated over time and contemporary animosity referring to situational in that it deals with recent economic disputes (Lee and Lee, 2013). The antecedents of animosity are known that consumers harboring high levels of animosity are more likely to be patriotic and older (Klein and Ettenson, 1999) and have a tendency to harbor more dogmatism, nationalism, and less internationalism (Shoham et al., 2006) and more perceived threat, antithetical political attitudes and negative personal experiences (Hoffmann et al., 2011). Cultural similarity (Ma et al., 2012) moderates the negative effect of animosity on the foreign product evaluation and its purchase intention. Furthermore, studies by Fong and his colleagues extend knowledge of branding strategy and FDI entry modes such as joint ventures, acquisitions, and wholly own subsidiary in the context of animosity in the host country (Fong et al., 2013, 2014, 2015). Several studies have refined the animosity construct. Jung et al. (2002) suggest a typology of animosity categorized by two dimension; personal-national and stable-situational. Riefler and Diamantopoulos (2007) challenge the traditional construct domain assumptions of animosity and suggest that the animosity concept also encompasses 44 AJB 32,1 Downloaded by IQRA UNIVERSITY At 09:00 04 October 2017 (PT) individual perceived differences. Hoffmann et al. (2011) addressed the development of a cross-nationally stable scale of consumer animosity. Nes et al. (2012) propose four-dimensional construct of animosity including economic, military/war, people, and politics/government. Most recently, Harmeling et al. (2015) extend conceptual framework of consumer animosity using cognitive-affective theories of emotion and introduced coping processes between different negative emotions in animosity. This brief review of consumer animosity highlights research gap in the field of international marketing that extant literature suggests that animosity would have negative effect on intention to purchase; however, we suggest that the relationship will differ based upon the type of product, i.e., high vs low involvement. Moreover, in order to identify more detailed segment of Korean consumers holding animosity toward Japan we seek to explore if world culture oriented values contribute to the explanation of the animosity construct. The specific hypotheses are put forward linking cosmopolitanism, consumer ethnocentrism, and SNI to consumer animosity. The conceptual framework illustrated in Figure 1 identifies these hypothesized relationships. In general, the hypotheses suggest that individuals that exhibit the higher tendency of cosmopolitanism will be more likely to have the lower level of animosity. Conversely, individuals who exhibit the higher tendency of ethnocentrism and SNI will be more likely to have the higher level of animosity. Hypotheses Cosmopolitanism and animosity The advent of multiculturalism in many countries provides opportunities for more people to develop cosmopolitan tendencies. Cosmopolitanism refers to an individual's openness to other cultures and unbiasedness when processing foreign cultural experiences (Cannon and Yaprak, 2002) as well as a desire to learn about foreign cultures and lifestyles (Thompson and Tambyah, 1999). A cosmopolitan consumer orientation seeks to consume products from other cultures (Caldwell et al., 2006). Consumers with global cosmopolitan orientation search for the best product the world has to offer (Cannon and Yaprak, 2002), for example, French champagne, German cars or Swiss watches because these items are the best in their product category. H3(+)b Susceptibility to Normative Influence Cosmopolitanism Consumer Ethnocentrism Animositya Purchase Intentions H4(-) H1(-) H2(+) Involvement (-) Notes: a Animosity is a second-order latent construct comprised of war, economic, and political animosity, as well as one first-order indicator (e.g. Klein et al., 1998). bThe relationship is hypothesized to be positive since the predominant attitude in Korea is one of animosity toward Japan Figure 1. Conceptual model 45 Consumer animosity and product involvement Downloaded by IQRA UNIVERSITY At 09:00 04 October 2017 (PT) Yet there is a vast majority of people who do not move around the world and still have strong ties to their national origins or their neighborhood and values of local communities (Calhoun, 2002). Nations are still important for them. As such, cosmopolitanism is defined in opposition to local, and most importantly national, given that the nation has been the privileged domain for understanding belonging (Beck, 2000). Nationalism refers to a perspective that one's country should be dominant and implies a denigration of other nations (Balabanis et al., 2001). Contrary to cosmopolitan consumer orientation reflecting an open-mindedness and acceptance concerning other nations and cultures, nationalistic people are more aggressive and prejudiced toward other nations (Druckman, 1994). Furthermore, nationalism with history of war and conflict raises ethnic identification, resulting in negative out-group attitudes (Brown et al., 2001) and increased animosity (Shoham et al., 2006). On the other hand, Cannon and Yaprak (2002) suggest that cosmopolitans are more likely to be open, tolerant and accepting of foreign products without being affected by collective evaluation of a specific country. Animosity is a negative feeling toward a specific country resulting in negative impact on the products from that country. It is more likely to be influenced by collective evaluation. Furthermore, a research found that consumers in countries with a colonial heritage were happy to embrace the expatriate lifestyle because of a quest for new and better experiences and feeling superiority to people with less cosmopolitan orientation at the home country, which is consistent with elitism associated with cosmopolitanism (Caldwell et al., 2006). We can expect consumers with high level of cosmopolitan tendencies: seek to purchase the high quality of products in the world; are not limited to the national value regarding their evaluations and behaviors; accept foreign products without being affected by collective evaluation of a specific country; and more enjoy expatriate lifestyle due to their history of colonial heritage. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis: H1. Cosmopolitan value orientation is negatively related to animosity. Consumer ethnocentrism and animosity The concept of consumer ethnocentrism is defined as the belief among buyers that it is inappropriate, or even immoral, to purchase foreign products, because to do so is damaging to the domestic economy, costs jobs, and is unpatriotic. Klein (2002) concluded that animosity and ethnocentrism are distinct constructs that play different role. Ethnocentrism leads consumers to dismiss all product options originating from outside their home country, in the belief that their own country is superior in all ways (see Shankarmahesh, 2006) while animosity is directed toward a specific country (Klein, 2002; Klein and Ettenson, 1999; Klein et al., 1998). Both also have unique consequences of consumers' evaluations of the products. Animosity may negatively impact consumers' willingness to buy products from countries toward which they feel angry or hostile without necessarily distorting consumers' evaluations of the quality of products, but ethnocentrism is significantly related to both product quality judgments and purchase intentions (Shimp and Sharma, 1987). However, at one level, ethnocentrism and animosity may be similar constructs because they can stem from economic and political events and both provide insight into consumers' attitudes toward imported goods (Klein and Ettenson, 1999). On the other hand, the relationship between consumer ethnocentrism and animosity may be hierarchical. The relationship between traits has been shown to be hierarchical in nature with higher-order traits influencing lower-order traits that are related to behavioral outcomes (e.g. Allport, 1961). We propose that because of the targeted and specific nature of animosity that it occupies a lower order than that of consumer ethnocentrism which is more general in scope. One such hierarchical model known as the "3M Model" (Mowen, 2000) explains that traits at one level can directly influence traits at any other lower-order level. Therefore, we propose consumer ethnocentrism as an antecedent of animosity. 46 AJB 32,1 Downloaded by IQRA UNIVERSITY At 09:00 04 October 2017 (PT) In general, the concept of ethnocentrism represents the universal proclivity for people to view their own in-group as the center of the universe, offering protection against out-groups (Shimp and Sharma, 1987). Consumer ethnocentrism gives the individual feelings of belongingness and an understanding of what purchase behavior is acceptable or unacceptable to the in-group. Given in-group identification, levels of ethnocentric tendencies tend to soar in the presence of a perceived threat such as unfair economic trade, political disputes or disagreements, or hostile memory of war. From the perspective of consumers, purchasing products from a particular detested country may be wrong because it hurts the domestic economy and is unpatriotic in their minds due to the ongoing disagreements of political and diplomatic items. In sum, ethnocentric people view their own in-group as the center of the universe and results in negative out-group attitudes. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis: H2. Ethnocentric tendencies of consumers are positively related to animosity. SNI and animosity Subjective norms have been found to influence attitudes (e.g. Terry and Hogg, 1996). In the context of examining animosity toward another national group, the prevailing public attitude in the home country toward another nation should to some degree influence the attitude of individuals. The degree of influence that public opinion carries depends on the SNI of the individual. SNI is defined as the social influence to conform to the expectations of another person or group (Burnkrant and Cousineau, 1975). A substantial body of compliance and conformity research indicates that the influence of others affects individuals' attitude and behavior (for a review, see Cialdini and Goldstein, 2004). Research has found that high SNI individuals are concerned about public appearance, seek to gain social acceptance and are willing to conform to others' expectations. High SNI individuals tend to avoid presenting themselves in a way that may result in social disapproval (Wooten and Reed, 2004). On the other hand, low SNI individuals are presumably less concerned about what other people think. Compared with low SNI consumers, high SNI consumers are more easily persuaded to join their peers who support a boycott to abstain from buying products (Sen et al., 2001). Research (e.g. Childers and Rao, 1992) also suggests that people's decisions are strongly influenced by social norms or their reference groups. Individuals consider social norms or reference groups to gain an accurate understanding of and to effectively respond to social situations (Cialdini, 2001). High SNI consumers may feel pressure and, in turn, form attitude to comply with social norms or expectations of reference groups. In as much that world culture theory suggests that those adopting a worldview of a single global community would have less animosity, SNI serves as a potentially countervailing force. If the prevailing public opinion is one of animosity, the SNI would be positively related to animosity. In cases where public opinion is one of admiration and liking, then the relationship between SNI and animosity would be negative. In the research context of this study, public opinion polls show high levels of distrust and bad relations between Japan and Korea, we propose that Korean consumers who are more susceptible to normative influence will feel more animosity toward Japan to comply with social norms or their reference group. In order to account for differences driven by the valence of the public's attitude toward the target country, we frame the hypothesis in the context of the Korean public's documented animosity toward Japan: H3. Korean consumers' SNI is positively related to animosity toward Japan. Intention to purchase: high involvement vs low involvement products Researchers showed that animosity had a negative impact on consumers' willingness to buy products of countries for which consumers have animosity (Klein, 2002; 47 Consumer animosity and product involvement Downloaded by IQRA UNIVERSITY At 09:00 04 October 2017 (PT) Klein and Ettenson, 1999; Klein et al., 1998; Nijssen and Douglas, 2004; Witkowski, 2000). These studies investigated the behavioral impact of the construct without distinguishing between types of products. One important distinction may be the level of involvement. Baughn and Yaprak's (1993) review of country of origin research suggests that consumer involvement with the product may be particularly important. Laurent and Kapferer (1985) identify involvement consisting of four dimensions: perceived importance, perceived risk with product purchase, symbolic value of product, and hedonic value of the product. Under conditions of high involvement, messages have greater personal relevance and elicit more personal connections (Petty and Cacioppo, 1979) and individuals are more likely to engage in more information processing and elaboration when forming attitudes compared to low involvement situations (Petty et al., 1983). Extant research on animosity have often examined high involvement products such as automobiles (Klein, 2002), movies (Russell and Russell, 2006), wine, clothing and jewelry (Ettenson and Klein, 2005), or summed composite indicators of multiple products (e.g. Klein et al., 1998; Shoham et al., 2006). When products are perceived as more personally relevant or important, animosity likely plays a greater role as individuals have more personal connections to the product. High involvement products have more symbolic value and may signal support for the country of origin of the product. In order to maintain attitudinal consistency with behavior, individuals with animosity toward a particular country would avoid high involvement products from that country. However, low involvement products seem less important, have less perceived risk, low symbolic value and emotional appeal; therefore, the country of origin of the product may be deemed irrelevant. Thus, for a high involvement product, we expect to find results consistent with prior animosity research that shows that animosity negatively influences intentions to purchase. However, we suggest that for a low involvement product animosity's effect will be weaker than the effect on purchase intentions of high involvement products: H4. Consumer animosity has a stronger negative effect on purchase intentions for high (vs low) involvement products from a country viewed with animosity. Methodology Choice of country context Despite improving relations between South Korea and Japan, negative memories of past events especially those related to the Second World War persist. Under Japanese colonial occupation for 35 years from 1910 to 1945, the Korean people experienced terrible atrocities as Japan exploited Korea during its effort to win the Second World War. According to Ang et al. (2004), Korean national animosity toward Japan has not changed. Despite repeated and continuing efforts to try to improve the bilateral relationship, Korea appears to harbor painful and persistent memories of Japanese colonization. Resentment is fueled by these memories whenever political and diplomatic issues cause disagreements. In sum, the Japanese occupation of Korea in the Second World War, and more recently, the territorial disputes, political differences and the Japanese Government's attempt to distort or deny previous war-time wrongdoings has resulted in long-standing tensions between Korea and Japan. Given the background and relationship between the two countries, the study of Korean animosity toward Japan is an appropriate setting for this study. Sample In conducting international research, non-probabilistic methods have been commonly employed (e.g. Klein et al., 1998). In this study, a convenience sample from Korea was used and Japan is employed as the target of animosity. Surveys were completed by employees of several firms in Seoul and Kyoungki because of their fairly high percentage of population 48 AJB 32,1 Downloaded by IQRA UNIVERSITY At 09:00 04 October 2017 (PT) and high degree of market integration in Korea. The research team distributed the questionnaires and waited for each to be completed on-site. The questionnaire consisted of several sections, with items using seven-point Likert scales. Items employed to measure the various constructs of interest are contained in Table AI. Given the items were first developed in English, the initial draft survey was assessed for cultural compatibility and adequacy for a Korean sample by native speakers fluent in English (Craig and Douglas, 2001). Minor modifications were made, based on their feedback, to ensure that all items to be employed were appropriate, adequate, and meaningful for respondents. The survey was then translated from English to Korean and back-translated to English independently by two separate native Korean speakers. A review of the back-translation suggested that the Korean language survey was comparable to the English language survey. A total of 240 surveys were completed. After eliminating 45 incomplete cases, the final sample consisted of 195 usable responses. The sample is approximately half female while remaining demographics indicate a relatively young sample with average to above average income and education levels, see Table I. Measures Established scales were adapted to measure each of the constructs of interest. Table AI reports the psychometric properties of all scales employed and Table II reports correlations between model constructs. Each item was measured using seven-point Likert scales. Animosity was measured similar to Klein et al. (1998) as a second-order latent construct. In addition to the one first-order item and second-order items for war animosity and economic animosity, another latent construct political animosity was added. Political animosity is defined as a source of enmity in the original study by Klein et al. (1998) along with war and economic animosity. Furthermore, as we noted earlier, political dispute or disagreement is one of the major sources that Korean consumers hold animosity toward Japan. Three scales of SNI were selected from the research of Bearden et al. (1989), four items of consumer ethnocentrism Variable % Total sample size: 195 Gender Female 49 Male 51 Age: mean age 32 20-29 40 30-39 49 Over 40 11 Income Below national average (below KRW3,000,000(US$2,280)) 18 At the average income level (between KRW3,000,000 and KRW5,000,000 (US$2,280 and US$3,800)) 33 Over the national average (greater than KRW5,000,000 (US$3,800)) 48 Education Graduate degree 27 Bachelor's degree 56 2 year college degree 11 High school graduation 5 Below high school o1 Table I. Sample 1 descriptive statistics 49 Consumer animosity and product involvement Downloaded by IQRA UNIVERSITY At 09:00 04 October 2017 (PT) were chosen from the research of Shimp and Sharma (1987), and six cosmopolitanism items were used from Yoon et al.'s (1995) research. For this study, two products were employed to represent high and low involvement products. High involvement products are purchased with a great deal of time or cognitive effort as these products involve greater consumer expenditure or are seen as more risky, while low-involvement products are bought frequently with a minimum of thought and effort (Radder and Huang, 2008; Wong et al., 2008). Some product categories such as television sets, washing machines, automobiles and cameras tend to command higher levels of involvement than products such as instant coffees, breakfast cereals, breads, and mouthwashes (e.g. see Laurent and Kapferer, 1985). In this study the products used were a digital camera for high involvement, and pen/pencils for low involvement (e.g. see Ahmed et al., 2004). Validity and reliability We evaluated the psychometric properties of the eight latent constructs involving 24 items in one confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using LISREL 8.8 ( Jreskog et al., 2001). In addition, we examined the higher-order structure of animosity as a second-order factor of war, economic and political animosity. We assessed the second-order construct of animosity in a separate measurement model using six second-order indicators (two for each war, economic and political animosity), and one first-order indicator and support was found for the higher-order structure: war animosity (loading 0.82, po0.001), economic animosity (loading 0.51, po0.001), political animosity (loading 0.77, po0.001), and the first-order item (loading 0.50, po0.001). The model fit for the second-order animosity construct was acceptable: 2 14.78, 2 /df(11) 1.34, RMSEA 0.04, SRMR 0.02, NNFI 0.99, CFI 0.99. Non-significant factor loadings, high modification indices, and high residuals forced the elimination of three items. Subsequent to eliminating these items, unidimensionality and convergent validity was evident by all items significantly loading on their respective constructs, and the CFA produced respectable fit: ( 2 361.40, 2 /df(163) 2.22, RMSEA 0.079, SRMR 0.07, NNFI 0.91, CFI 0.93). Discriminant validity was evident in that no confidence interval for the phi correlations between pairs of variables contain 1.0 (e.g. Anderson and Gerbing, 1988), and all squared phi correlations were less than the respective variance extracted estimates for all pairs of constructs (e.g. Fornell and Larcker, 1981). We assessed construct reliability by calculating composite reliability for each construct (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The scales' reliabilities exceeded recommended thresholds and ranged from 0.77 to 0.96. 1 2 3 4 5 6 78 1 Intention to purchase a Japanese digital camera 0.96 2 Intention to purchase Japanese pens and pencils 0.32** 0.96 3 Susceptibility to normative influence 0.25** 0.33** 0.42 4 Consumer ethnocentrism 0.05 0.02 0.21* 0.79 5 War animosity 0.16* 0.09 0.08 01.11 0.93 6 Economic animosity 0.14 0.02 0.10 0.46** 0.40** 0.74 7 Political animosity 0.21** 0.13 0.24* 0.06 0.64** 0.40** 0.63 8 Cosmopolitanism 0.11 0.12 0.27** 0.17* 0.17* 0.03 0.05 0.50 Notes: AVE on diagonal. *po0.05; **po0.01 Table II. Construct correlations 50 AJB 32,1 Downloaded by IQRA UNIVERSITY At 09:00 04 October 2017 (PT) Analysis and results A structural equation model was estimated in Lisrel 8.8 to assess the proposed model. The results are summarized in Table III. The analysis provides evidence for the hypothesized relationships among all the variables of interest, i.e., SNI, cosmopolitanism, consumer ethnocentrism, animosity, and intention to purchase. As proposed, the hypothesized antecedents are all significantly related to consumer animosity. SNI is positively related ( 0.23, po0.05) in support of H1; as is consumer ethnocentrism ( 0.19, po0.05) in support of H2. The data also provides evidence that cosmopolitanism is negatively related to animosity ( 0.23, po0.05), supporting H3. Finally, in support of H4, consumer animosity is negatively related to intention to purchase the high-involvement product, i.e., Japanese digital camera ( 0.19, po0.05); but not related to intention to purchase the low-involvement product, i.e., Japanese pen/pencils ( 0.06, pW0.05). In sum, the results support the hypothesized model. External validity of the role of product involvement To extend the examination of product involvement, H4, in the proposed model, we collected a second data sample. Referring to the FCB grid model (Vaughn, 1980, 1986), six different product categories were chosen: digital camera, automobiles and life insurance for high involvement products and pen and pencils, green tea and detergent for low involvement products. Survey data were collected from undergraduate students enrolled in a university in Seoul, Korea. A proportion of the enrolled students was instructed to take the survey questionnaire home to administer survey to their parents while the rest of the respondents were instructed to answer the questionnaire themselves. It was reasoned that this would achieve two objectives; first, it would spread out the age distribution of the sample so that it is possible to generalize the result based on age cohort. Second, the parents who aged above 40 or 50 would have better historical knowledge and awareness of the adverse relationship between Korea and Japan. A total of 228 surveys were completed. After eliminating ten incomplete cases, the final sample consisted of 218 usable responses. The demographics of the second sample include a much greater percentage of the over 40 age group (39 vs 11 percent in the first sample), and less educated (only 29 percent have a Bachelor's degree or higher vs 83 percent in the first sample), see Table IV. A structural equation model was estimated in Lisrel 8.80 to replicate H4. The analysis provides evidence for the hypothesized relationship. As predicted, in support of H4, consumer animosity is negatively related to intention to purchase the high-involvement product, i.e., Japanese digital camera, automobiles, and life insurance ( 0.19, po0.05); but not related to intention to purchase the low-involvement product, i.e., Japanese pen/ pencils, green tea, and detergent ( 0.07, pW0.05), see Table V. Independent variable Dependent variable Standardized coefficients Hypotheses Suscept. Norm. Influence Animosity 0.23* H1: Supported Consumer ethnocentrism Animosity 0.19* H2: Supported Cosmopolitanism Animosity 0.23* H3: Supported Animosity Intention to purchase a Japanese digital camera 0.19* H4: Supported Intention to purchase Japanese pens and pencils 0.06 ns H4: Supported Notes: The effect of income on purchase intention of high and low involvement products was controlled for. The effect was non-significant for the high involvement digital camera (t 0.80); however, was positive and significant for the low involvement pens and pencils (t 2.11). 2 497.67; 2 /df (229) 2.17; RMSEA 0.08; NNFI 0.90; CFI 0.92. *po0.05 Table III. Sample 1 standardized results of the hypothesis testing 51 Consumer animosity and product involvement Downloaded by IQRA UNIVERSITY At 09:00 04 October 2017 (PT) Discussion and implications The findings of the study support the proposed animosity model in the context of Korea and Japan. All three antecedents (SNI, consumer ethnocentrism, and cosmopolitanism) are significantly related to animosity. Korean consumers who are more susceptible to normative influence or more ethnocentric feel more animosity toward Japan, but Korean consumers who have a more cosmopolitan orientation feel less animosity toward Japan. Perhaps the most interesting finding of this research is the role of product involvement in the relationship between animosity and Korean consumers' intention to purchase Japanese products. This study investigates the behavioral impact of animosity by distinguishing between types of products: high (digital camera) - low (pens and pencils) involvement products. We found that animosity negatively influences intentions to purchase for digital camera, automobile, and life insurance (high involvement product) while animosity does not affect purchase intention for pens and pencils, detergent, and green tea (low involvement product). Variable Percentage Total sample size: 218 Gender Female 38 Male 62 Age: mean age 34 Under 30 46 30-39 15 Over 40 39 Income Below national average 14 (below KRW3,000,000(US$2,280)) At the average income level (between KRW3,000,000 and KRW5,000,000 (US$2,280 and US$3,800)) 62 Over the national average (greater than KRW5,000,000 (US$3,800)) 24 Education Graduate degree 2 Bachelor's degree 27 2 year college degree 13 High school graduation 55 Below high school 4 Table IV. Sample 2 descriptive statistics Independent variable Dependent variable Standardized coefficients Hypotheses Animosity Intention to purchase Japanese high involvement products (digital camera, automobiles, and life insurance) 0.19* H4: Supported Intention to purchase Japanese low involvement products (pens and pencils, green tea, and detergent) 0.07 ns H4: Supported Notes: The effect of income on purchase intention of high and low involvement products was controlled for. The effect was non-significant for both high involvement products (t 0.57) and low involvement products (t 0.06). 2 133.88; 2 /df (74) 1.81; RMSEA 0.06; NNFI 0.93; CFI 0.95. *po0.05 Table V. Sample 2 standardized results of the hypothesis testing 52 AJB 32,1 Downloaded by IQRA UNIVERSITY At 09:00 04 October 2017 (PT) These findings are important because it establishes a boundary condition and identifies an exception to the previous findings (e.g. Klein et al., 1998) that in general animosity has a negative impact on consumers' willingness to buy products of countries for which consumers have animosity. In other words, the effect of animosity on purchase intention of products from a disliked country is influenced by the degree of involvement. The findings do not indicate a preference for Korean products, rather a preference against high-involvement Japanese products. World culture theory posits four different world views. One such view is called Gemeinschaft 2 which views the world as being a single community, or at least the potential to become so (Robertson, 1992). Thus, the notion of animosity directed at other national groups is incompatible with this view due to the post-national view of the world described by Gemeinschaft 2. The results from this study affirm the Gemeinschaft 2 view explained by world culture theory by offering evidence that greater cosmopolitanism and less ethnocentrism result in less animosity transcending war, economic, and political disputes. In addition, those not adopting a worldview of a single global community, but holding antagonistic sentiments toward a specific country by subjective norms embedded in the country would have more animosity. The results cannot offer the degree to which this world-citizen view is taking hold; however, continued globalization compels individuals to consider their relationship to the rest of the world. What the result implies is important since it suggests that people's worldview may translate into a collective sentiment against a specific country. This connection between global outlook and country-level attitude offers new insight to marketers who want to position their products as truly global product with little connection with local identities. Therefore, animosity should become a more relevant construct in international marketing. This study found that Korean consumers still hold high level of animosity toward Japan and these feelings negatively impact their purchase intentions of Japanese products despite South Korea's high level of globalization (a nation's degree of globalization ranks 29th ahead of Japan and China) (Ernst and Young, 2011) and economic development (its market economy ranks 15th in the world by nominal GDP and 11th by purchasing power parity). This study benefits marketing managers in a few important ways. It may be especially relevant in emerging markets such as Korea and China who have long and complicated histories and even in highly globalized and economically developed country. Marketing managers would be advised to identify market segments containing consumers holding high level of animosity and to target them with separate branding strategy excluding country of origin information. As foreign brands enter these emerging markets the degree to which consumers identify those brands with the country of origin could impact the brand's success. Market research can include measures of animosity to determine which segments are particularly high in animosity, as well as, the degree of association between the brand and its country of origin. Based on such information marketers may choose to alter the marketing strategies, perhaps even entering the market with alternative brand names. Especially, when marketing high-involvement products rather than low-involvement products, managers may want to avoid the image of the country of origin of the product as individuals have more personal connections to the product and consequently animosity plays a greater role. Thus, marketing managers should emphasize attributes unrelated to the country of origin of the product when people hold adverse national sentiments against countries selling the products. The findings of this study suggest that advertising and promotional campaigns could employ salient spokespersons, role models and opinion leaders to ease inherent animosity. Like any other international marketing studies, this current study has also limitation. First, we used a convenience sample, which limits the generalizability of the findings. However, our data collection produced a sample that is somewhat representative of the demographics of Korean consumers. 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(1995), "Evaluating the CYMYC cosmopolitanism scale on Korean consumers", Advances in International Marketing, Vol. 7, pp. 211-232. 56 AJB 32,1 Downloaded by IQRA UNIVERSITY At 09:00 04 October 2017 (PT) Appendix Corresponding author Ji Eun Park can be contacted at: J..6@csuohio.edu Loadings War animosity (Klein et al., 1998) (CR 0.96, AVE 0.93) 1. I feel angry toward the Japanese because of past wars - 2. I will never forgive Japan for forcing Korean women to work as prostitutes during the war 0.98 3. I will never forgive Japan for forcing Korean men into compulsory military service for Japan 0.95 Economic animosity (Klein et al., 1998) (CR 0.85, AVE 0.74) 1. Japanese companies are taking advantage of Korean consumers 0.86 2. Japan has too much economic influence over Korea - 3. Japanese companies conduct business unfairly with Korea 0.86 Political animosity (CR 0.77, AVE 0.62) 1. The Japanese Government implements unfair policies against Korea - 2. The Japanese Government distorts history to make Japan look good and Korea look bad 0.81 3. The Japanese Government should admit its past wrongdoings against Korea 0.77 Intention to purchase Japanese digital camera (CR 0.96, AVE 0.96) 1. The next time I buy a digital camera, I would consider buying a Japanese digital camera 0.96 Intention to purchase Japanese pens and pencils (CR 0.96, AVE 0.96) 1. The next time I buy a pens and pencils, I would consider buying a Japanese pen and pencils 0.96 Susceptibility to normative influence (Bearden et al., 1989) (CR 0.68, AVE 0.42) 1. If I want to be like someone, I often try to buy the same brands they buy 0.59 2. When buying products, I generally purchase those brands that I think others will approve of 0.78 3. To be sure I buy the right product, I often observe what others are buying and using 0.56 Consumer ethnocentrism (Shimp and Sharma, 1987) (CR 0.94, AVE 0.79) 1. Purchasing foreign-made products is un-Korean 0.84 2. Korean should not buy foreign products, because this hurts Korean businesses and causes unemployment 0.89 3. A real Korean should always buy Korean-made products 0.93 4. It is not right to purchase foreign-made products 0.90 Cosmopolitanism (Yoon et al., 1995) (CR 0.86, AVE 0.50) 1. I do, or wish I could, speak at least one foreign language 0.53 2. I like immersing myself in different cultural environments 0.69 3. I enjoy getting news from all over the world 0.86 4. World issues concern me a great deal 0.78 5. When I make an important decision, I look for information and opinions from a diverse set of sources 0.65 6. I like to have contact with people from different cultures 0.70 Notes: CFA fit: 2 361.40, 2 /df(163) 2.22, RMSEA 0.079, SRMR 0.07, NNFI 0.91, CFI 0.93 Table AI. Sample 1 measurement scales with source, item loadings, CR, and AVE For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website: www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm Or contact us for further details: p..s@emeraldinsight.com

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