AP PSYCHOLOGY SUMMER READING ASSIGNMENT PERRY MASON: HAMILTON BURGER: PERRY MASON: HAMILTON BURGER: THANKS FOR THE MEMORIES! Loftus, E. F (1975). Leading questions and the eyewitness report. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 560-572. Hamilton, I believe that my client is telling the truth when she says she was nowhere near the scene of the crime. Perry, why don't we let the jury decide? Because I don't believe there is going to be a trial. You haven't got a case. All you have is circumstantial evidence. Well, Perry, I suppose this is as good a time as any to tell you. We have someone who saw the whole thing, Perry. We have an eyewitness! And as the mysterious music crescendos, we know that this is going to be another difficult case for Perry. Even though we are reasonably certain he will prevail in the end, the presence of a single eyewitness to the crime has changed a weak case into a nearly airtight one for the district attorney. Why do eyewitness reports provide such strong evidence in criminal cases? The reason is that attorneys, judges, juries, and the general public believe that the way in which a person remembers an event must be the way it actually happened. In other words, memory is thought of as a process of re-creating an event. We commonly make assumptions concerning the reliability of human memory, which psychologists who study memory (cognitive psychologists) have now drawn into question. One of the leading researchers in the area of memory is Elizabeth Loftus at the University of Washington. She has found that when an event is recalled it is not accurately recreated. Instead, what is recalled is a memory that is a reconstruction of the actual event. Loftus' research has demonstrated that reconstructive memory is a result of your use of new and existing information to fill in the gaps in your recall of an experience. She maintains that your memories are not stable, as we commonly believe, but that they are malleable and changeable over time. So if you tell someone a story from your vacation five years ago, you think you are recreating the experience just as it happened, but you probably are not. Instead, you have reconstructed the memory using information from many sources, such the previous times you've told it, other experiences from the same or later vacations, perhaps a movie you saw last year that was shot in the same place as your vacation, and so on. You know this is true if you have ever recounted an experience in the presence of another person who was with you at the time. It is surprising how much your stories can disagree about an event you both witnessed at the same time! Usually, these alterations in memory are harmless. However, in legal proceedings, when a defendant's fate may rest on the testimony of an eyewitness, memory reconstructions can be crucial. For this reason, most of Loftus's research in the area of memory has been connected to legal eyewitness testimony. In her early research, she found that very subtle influences, such as how a question is worded, can alter a person's memory for a witnessed event. For example, if witnesses to an automobile accident are asked "Did you see a broken headlight?" or "Did you see the broken headlight the question using the word "the" produced more positive responses than the question using the word "a," even when there had been no broken headlight. The use of "the" presupposes the presence of a broken headlight and this, in turn, causes witnesses to "add" a new feature to their memories of the event. The article that is the focus of this discussion is one of the most often cited studies by Loftus because it reports on four related studies that took her theory one major step further. In these studies, she demonstrated that the wording of questions asked of eyewitnesses could alter their memories of events when they were asked other questions about the events at a later time. Keep in mind that this research influenced both memory theory and criminal law. THEORETICAL PROPOSITIONS This research focused on the power of questions containing presuppositions to alter a person's memory of an event. Loftus defines a presupposition as a condition that must be true in order for the question to make sense. For example, suppose you have witnessed an automobile accident and I ask you, "How many people were in the car that was speeding?" The question presupposes that the car was speeding. But what if the car was not actually speeding? Well, you might answer the question anyway because it was not a question about the speed of the car. Loftus proposed, however, that because of the way the question was worded, you might add the speeding information to your memory of the event. Consequently, if you are asked other questions later, you will be more Hock, Roger. Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research. Prentice Hall. Pages 92-100 [Page 10 of 31] AP PSYCHOLOGY SUMMER READING ASSIGNMENT likely to say the car was speeding. Based on her previous research, Loftus hypothesized that if eyewitnesses are asked questions that contain a false presupposition about the witnessed event, the new false information may appear subsequently in additional reports by the witness. Because three of the four studies included in this article involved recall tests after an interval of a week, Loftus was implicitly predicting that the reconstructed memory involving the false information would persist over time. METHOD AND RESULTS For each of the four experiments reported, the method and results will be summarized together. Experiment 1 In the first study, 150 students in small groups saw a film of a five-car chain reaction accident that occurs when a driver runs through a stop sign into oncoming traffic. The accident takes only 4 seconds and the entire film runs less than a minute. After the film, the subjects were given a questionnaire containing 10 questions. For half of the subjects, the first question was, "How fast was Car A [the car that ran the stop sign] going when it ran the stop sign?" For the other half of the subjects, the question read, "How fast was Car A going when it turned right?" The remaining questions were of little interest to the researchers until the last one, which was the same for both groups: "Did you see a stop sign for Car A?" In the group that had been asked about the stop sign, 40 subjects (53 percent) said they saw a stop sign for Car A, while only 26 (35 percent) in the "turned right" group claimed to have seen it. This difference was found to be statistically significant. Experiment 2 The second study Loftus reported was the first in this series to involve a delayed memory test and was the only one of the four not to use an automobile accident as the witnessed event. For this study, 40 subjects were shown a three-minute segment from the film Diary of a Student Revolution. The clip showed a class being disrupted by 8 demonstrators. After they viewed the film, the subjects were given questionnaires containing 20 questions relating to the film clip. For half of the subjects, one of the questions asked, "Was the leader of the 4 demonstrators who entered the classroom a male?" For the other half, the question asked, "Was the leader of the 12 demonstrators who entered the classroom a male?" All remaining questions were identical for the two groups. One week after this initial test, the subjects from both groups re turned and answered 20 new questions about the film (without seeing it again). The one question that provided the results of the study was, "How many demonstrators did you see entering the classroom?" Remember, both groups of subjects saw the same film and answered the same questions, except for the reference to 12 vs. 4 demonstrators. The group that had received the question presupposing 12 demon stators reported seeing an average of 8.85. Those who had received the question asking about 4 demonstrators averaged 6.40. This was also a significant difference. Some of the subjects recalled the correct number of 8. However, this experiment showed that, on average, the wording of one question altered the way subjects remembered the basic characteristics of a witnessed event. Experiment 3 This experiment was designed to see if false presuppositions inherent in questions could cause witnesses to reconstruct their memory of an event to include objects that were not there. The subjects (150 university students; watched a short video of an accident involving a white sports car and then answered 10 questions about the content of the video. One question included for half of the subjects was, "How fast was the white sports car going when it passed the barn while traveling along the country road?" The other half o the subjects were asked, "How fast was the white sports car going while traveling along the country road?" As in the previous study, the subjects returned a week later and answered 10 new questions about the accident. The question addressing the issue under study was, "Did you see a barn?" Hock, Roger. Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research. Prentice Hall. Pages 92-100 [Page 11 of 31] AP PSYCHOLOGY SUMMER READING ASSIGNMENT Of those subjects who had previously answered a question in which barn was mentioned, 13 (17.3 percent) of them answered "yes" to the test question a week later, compared with only 2 (2.7 percent) in the no-barn group. Once again, this was a statistically significant difference. Experiment 4 The final experiment reported in this article was a somewhat more elaborate study designed to meet two goals. First, Loftus wanted to further demonstrate the memory reconstruction effects found in Experiment 3. Second, she wondered if perhaps just the mention of an object, even if it was not included as part of a false presupposition, might be enough to cause the object to be added to memory. For example, you are asked directly, "Did you see a barn?" when there was no barn in the film. You will probably answer "No." But if you are asked again a week later, might that barn have crept into your memory of the event? This was the idea Loftus tested in the fourth experiment. Three groups of 50 subjects viewed a three-minute film shot from the inside of a car that ends with the car colliding with a baby carriage pushed by a man. The three groups then received booklets containing questions about the film. These booklets differed as follows: Group D: Group F: Group C: The direct question group received booklets containing 40 "filler" questions and five key questions directly asking about non-existent objects; for example, "Did you see a barn in the film?" The false presupposition group received the same 40 filler questions and five key questions that contained presuppositions about the same non-existent objects, such as, "Did you see a station wagon parked in front of the barn?" The control group received only the 40 filler questions. One week later all the subjects returned and answered 20 new questions about the film. Five of the questions were the exact same key questions as were asked of the direct-question group a week before. So group D saw those five questions twice. The measurement used was the percentage of subjects in each group who claimed to remember the non-existent objects. Table 1 summarizes the findings for all three groups. Remember, there was no school bus, truck, center line on the road, woman pushing the carriage, or barn in the film. Combining all the questions, the overall percentages of those subjects answering "yes" to the direct questions one week later were: 29.2 percent for the false-presupposition group, 15.6 percent for the direct-question group, and 8.4 percent for the control group. TABLE 1: Appearance of Non-Existent Objects in Subjects' Recall of Filmed Accident Following Direct Questions and False Direct Question Did you see a school bus in the film? Did you see a truck in the beginning of the film? Presuppositions False Presupposition Did you see the children getting on the school bus? At the beginning of the film was the truck parked beside the car? Percent of "yes" responses to direct question one week later: F 6 12 26 0 8 22 Did you see a center line on the country road? Did another car cross the center line on the country road? 8 14 26 Did you see a woman pushing the carriage? Did you see a barn in the film? Did the woman pushing the carriage cross into the road? 26 36 54 Did you see a station wagon parked in front of the barn? 2 8 18 C control group D=direct-question group F=false-presupposition group (from p. 568) Hock, Roger. Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research. Prentice Hall. Pages 92-100 [Page 12 of 31] AP PSYCHOLOGY SUMMER READING ASSIGNMENT The differences between the direct-question group and the false-presupposition group for each item as well as for all the items combined were statistically significant. However, while there is a trend to indicate a similar effect of the direct questions over controls, these differences were not large enough to reach statistical significance. DISCUSSION Based on these and other studies, Loftus argued that an accurate theory of memory and recall must include a process of reconstruction that occurs when new information is integrated into the original memory of an event. To simply assume that recall involves only a re-creation of an event, with varying degrees of accuracy, cannot explain the findings of these studies. To illustrate, Figure 1 compares the traditional view of recall with the reformulated process proposed by Loftus. As you can see, the extra step of integrating new information into memory has been added. This new information, in turn, causes your representation of the original memory to be altered or reconstructed. TRADITIONAL VIEW 292 Original experience LOFTUS THEORY Original experience Integration of experience into long-term memory Integration of experience into long-term memory Question asked regarding original experience 1-1-1-1 original experience Integration of new information into memory of original experience Recreation of Question asked regarding original experience Response to question Recall of reconstructed memory with new information Response to question FIGURE 1 Recall of an event in response to a question. Later, if you are asked a question about the event, your recall will not be of the actual original event, but of your reconstruction of it. Loftus contended that this reconstruction process was the reason that barns, school busses, trucks, women pushing baby carriages, and center lines in roads were all conjured up in subjects' memories when they were not part of the original experience. The false presupposition in the questions asked provided a subtle form of new information that was unintentionally integrated into the original memory of the event. In applying this to eyewitnesses in criminal investigations, Loftus pointed out that often witnesses are questioned more than once. They might be asked questions by police at the scene of the crime, interviewed by the prosecuting attorney assigned to the case, and again examined if they testify in court. During these various sessions of questions, it is not unlikely that false presuppositions will be made, probably unintentionally. There are innumerable ways in which this might happen. Common, innocent sounding questions such as "What did the guy's gun look like?" or "Where was the getaway car parked?" have been shown to increase the chances that witnesses will remember a gun or a getaway car whether or not they were actually there (Smith & Ellsworth, 1987). So, while the witness, the attorneys, the judge, and the jury are making the assumption that the witness is recreating Hock, Roger. Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research. Prentice Hall. Pages 92-100 [Page 13 of 31] AP PSYCHOLOGY SUMMER READING ASSIGNMENT what was actually seen, Loftus contends that what is being remembered by the witness is a "regenerated image based on the altered memorial representation" (p. 571). CONCLUSIONS Elizabeth Loftus is considered by most to be the leading researcher in the areas of memory reconstruction and eyewitness inaccuracy. Her research in these areas continues (see Loftus & Ketcham, 1991). Her findings over the years have held up quite well to challenges and have been supported by other researchers in the field. This is not to say that her work is without criticism. Several researchers have argued that the integration of new information may lead a witness to incorrect answers, but that the original correct memory is not lost and may be accessed under the right conditions (see Bekerian & Bowers, 1983). Others have suggested that, if asked to think very carefully, eyewitnesses are actually able to discriminate between objects they actually saw and suggestions that were made to them after the original event (Lindsay & Johnson, 1989). There is little doubt, however, that in the course of criminal prosecutions, eyewitness reports are subject to many sources of error such as post-event information integration. It is because of the body of research by Loftus and others that the power and reliability of eyewitnesses in judicial proceedings is being seriously questioned. Loftus herself is one of the most sought after expert witnesses (usually for the defense) to demonstrate to juries the care they must use when evaluating the testimony of eyewitnesses. For example, one very high-profile case in which Loftus played a key role as an expert was the trial of the police officers accused in the 1991 beating of Rodney King in Los Angeles (Loftus & Rosenwald, 1993b). RECENT APPLICATIONS In addition to her on-going work in the area of eyewitness testimony, Elizabeth Loftus is currently one of the leading experts in the heated controversy over repressed childhood memories. On one side of this new debate are those people who claim to have been abused, usually sexually, sometime in their past, but have only recently, often with the help of a therapist, remembered the abuse. On the other side are those who have been accused of this abuse, but who categorically deny it and claim that these "memories" have been either fantasized or implanted through the therapeutic process (see Garry & Loftus, 1994, for a popular press review of the controversy). This falls squarely into the area of Loftus's research and she is writing and being quoted on this issue at a blindingly fast pace (Loftus & Rosenwald, 1993a; Loftus, 1993). In these articles, Loftus addressed such questions as: How common is it for memories of child abuse to be repressed? How are jurors and judges likely to react to these repressed memory claims? When the memories surface, what are they like? How authentic are the memories? Loftus's book, The Myth of Repressed Memories: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse, (Loftus & Ketcham, 1994; also, see Pope, 1995, for a review) summarizes her findings in this area and combines them into a cohesive argument. As with her eyewitness work, you can imagine that Loftus's position on repressed and recovered memories is also not without critics (e.g., Pezdek & Roe, 1997). After all, her rejection of the power of repression is directly opposed to models of psychology and the mind that have been around since Freud. Moreover, many therapists and victims have a very personal stake in the belief that one's memories of abuse can be repressed for years and later recovered. However, a careful reading of Loftus's thorough and careful scientific work should cause anyone to question this belief. As Loftus herself puts it in her recent book, "I study memory and I am a skeptic" (Loftus & Ketcham, 1994, p. 7). Perhaps we all should be. Hock, Roger. Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research. Prentice Hall. Pages 92-100 [Page 14 of 31]