1. Below is the Discussion from a study ofTransformational leadership in nursing: towards a more critical interpretation. Read and identify the vocabulary used in the discussion.

It is now more than 20 years since the transformational paradigm was introduced into studies of leadership. Although much research attention has been directed towards the concept, it has evolved little over this time (Kark 2004). Even though theory provides an essential guide to research, the fact that research on nursing leadership has been largely influenced by Burns and Bass's interpretations risks perpetuating the assumption that consensus already exists on the nature of nursing leadership, and as a consequence, there is little need to empirically investigate alternative understandings.

The transformational theory of leadership has focused attention on the characteristics of leaders and their vertical influence over followers. However, we know little about how leadership is evoked across organisations, actual leadership behaviours enacted in the nursing workplace, how context influences leader behaviour or the interpretation of leader behaviour or the dynamics within organisations that foster leadership by those not in designated positions of leadership. It is increasingly evident that leadership occurs at all levels of an organisation, reducing the importance of traditional charismatic, heroic and strategic interpretations of leader-led behaviour and change. The emergence of alternative empirical models, such as servant leadership with its focus on leader humility, self-awareness, transparency and moral conduct (Dennis and Bocarnea 2005; Jackson 2008), authentic leadership that seeks to transcends charisma and symbolic status (Avolio and Gardner 2005) and more proximal forms of transformational leadership (Alimo-Metcalfe and AlbanMetcalfe 2005), suggests there is much about leadership that remains largely unexplored in the nursing context. Importantly, the potential darker or less romantic features of leadership have been given little attention in the nursing literature. The overly optimistic interpretations of leadership favoured in nursing have meant that little acknowledgement has been given to the fact that leaders can do harm - either intentionally or unintentionally. Research into bullying and wrong-doing within the nursing context have identified the importance of considering the damaging dimensions of negative leadership behaviours (Jackson et al. 2012), especially when they are linked to avoidant or corrupt forms of nursing leadership (Hutchinson et al. 2009). In nursing, there has been a predominant focus upon understanding leadership in terms of what are good for the leader rather than the follower. In the main, followers are seen to play a passive role; they are the dependent variable under the influence of leader characteristics and behaviours (Jackson and Parry 2011). No attention has been given to understanding followers as constructors of leaders, followers as moderates of leader impact or follower as co-constructors of leader success or failure. As noted, there has been a tendency among nurses researching leadership to repeatedly recycle the same methodological approach with little attention given to its limitations. Although there are methodological justifications for repeating studies using the same instrument or methodology, to largely ignore other interpretations of leadership risks narrowing rather than extending knowledge. Given the potential limitations of the transformational model and the design limitations of many studies, it is possible that the claims made by proponents regarding the extent of transformational leadership in nursing are overstated. In some instances, assertions have been made that nursing leadership styles are predominately transformational when the data presented provides alternative or less unambiguous explanations (Suliman 2009). With leaders consistently rating their transformational characteristics more highly than their followers, questions must be raised as to whether nurse leaders really are as transformational as reported in studies. Rather than continuing to measure leader self-reports and followers reported perceptions of leadership characteristics, it may be more fruitful for future research to consider assessing the extent of actual leadership behaviours rather than continuing to focus upon perceptions of leadership. It has been suggested that leadership is best studied from the point of view of those who are meant to be most affected (Harns and Crede 2010). In nursing, there has been a predominant focus upon understanding leadership for the good of the leader or followers.

(Source: Hutchinsona & Jackson, 2013, pp.18-19).