Case 1: Case A: Does How You Sleep Matter?

With extracurricular, academics and a social life to maintain, goal-oriented students have to squeeze time from their hectic schedules to get homework done. The result? Lots of studying, writing and reading happens while lying or lounging in bed. Though many parents insist children study only at a desk, they may be surprised to hear what experts think about where and when it's best to review and learn. We gathered informed opinions from experts in education psychology, sleep medicine and ergonomics.

As a debate about homework escalates nationwide, a perhaps less-discussed issue is where this home-studying takes place. Among those who recognize that much of it happens in bed are industrial engineers and furniture designers. Over the years they have come up with across-the-bed tables that angle laptops for proper typing, reading pillows that cradle the neck, back and arms, even hard-sided lap pillows for resting a laptop on.

These can all help bed-studiers be more comfortable. However, Atul Malhotra, a physician and professor of medicine at the University of California, San Diego, with a focus on sleep medicine, notes: "Lying down or sitting upright doesn't impact your brain functionyour posture doesn't matter."

Social psychologist Harris Cooper believes that it is important for students to figure out their most effective study environment, and suggests that tracking progress over time can help determine if bed-studying is producing good work as a desk.

Dr. Atul Malhotra advises against reading and retaining something important just before sleeping, but suggests that studying in bed in the morning can be effective due to lack of distractions. Ergonomics specialist Janice Fletcher recommends achieving a neutral posture while studying, whether at a desk or in bed, to minimize discomfort and distractions.

The only widely known research specifically on students doing homework in bed versus at a desk was published in May 1968. Of the 100 or so college students they surveyedadmittedly at a time when studying was quite different from the screen-based work nowthe researchers at the University of California, Davis, found no difference in grade-point average between those who worked at their desk and those who studied in bed.

Similarly, we conducted the same type of research, with 100 students from the University of California, all in their third year of study, with gender being proportionally represented (49% male). During this research, participants were randomly assigned to a bed-studying or desk-studying group, and were in separate rooms with each having its own observer, and having material after four equal study sessions to test out the various postures in bed compared to those who did not study in bed. Both groups studied for 4 hours per evening and per morning, and the only topics were Calculus, Chemistry and English Literature. We generated the same, if not similar, results.

Questions: 1- What is the claim that the author is making? Clearly enlist its variables, whether they are dependent or independent, or intervening.

2- Is this research design an experiment? Why or why not?

3- What are various levels of measurement in statistics and research methods? Please provide a possible example for each by using this article

4- Which statistical test have the researchers conducted in this case?Suppose you have used JASP to conduct a test and gotten the result of your p-value as p=0.0507. What is the point of a p value and what does it denote? Would it be a one-tailed or two-tailed test? Elaborate on your result here as well.

Case 2: Case B: The Double-Edged Sword of Being a People Pleaser in a Workplace

Introduction:

Being a people pleaser can have both positive and negative effects on an individual's well-being and job performance. While being empathetic and supportive can be beneficial, constantly prioritizing other people's needs may lead to neglecting one's own work responsibilities and reduced productivity. This research aimed to investigate the relationship between being a people pleaser, anxiety, and job performance in a sample of Canadian employees working in healthcare, marketing, and HR industries.

Dr. Sarah Johnson, a Professor of Psychology at the University of California, Berkeley, notes that the findings of the study suggest that individuals who prioritize the needs of others over their own may experience a lack of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which can lead to anxiety and decreased job performance. Autonomy refers to the need to feel in control of one's own life, while competence refers to the need to feel capable and effective in achieving one's goals. Relatedness refers to the need to feel connected and valued by others.

The study's first hypothesis was that being a people pleaser would be positively associated with anxiety levels. Previous research has suggested that individuals who prioritize other people's needs over their own tend to experience more stress and anxiety due to the added pressure of constantly meeting others' expectations (Cheavens, Feldman, Woodward, & Snyder, 2008).

The second hypothesis was that being a people pleaser would be negatively associated with job performance. Previous research has found that individuals who focus on pleasing others may neglect their own responsibilities and tasks, leading to reduced productivity and effectiveness at work (Grant & Parker, 2009).

Methods:

The study involved a sample of 1,300 employees working in various organizations across Canadian businesses operating in the healthcare, marketing and HR industries. Participants were recruited through a referral system, and they were asked to fill out a survey at the beginning of the study and again after two years. Participants were also asked to invite their colleagues to fill out the questionnaire.

Being a people pleaser was measured using the People-Pleasing Scale (PPS) developed by Strube and colleagues (1988), which is a widely used and validated measure in the field of psychology. The PPS consists of 20 items that assess the degree to which individuals prioritize the needs and desires of others over their own, using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

Anxiety was measured using the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) scale developed by Spitzer and colleagues (2006), which is a widely used and validated measure for assessing anxiety symptoms in the general population. The GAD-7 consists of seven items that assess the frequency and intensity of anxiety symptoms, using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (nearly every day).

Job performance was measured using a self-reported scale that assessed the quality and quantity of work completed by participants. Participants were asked to rate their job performance on a 10-point scale ranging from 1 (very poor) to 10 (excellent). This type of self-reported measure has been used in previous studies to assess job performance (e.g., Borman & Motowidlo, 1993).

Results:

The results of the study showed a statistically significant positive association between being a people pleaser and anxiety (t(1298) = 4.61, p < .03). Specifically, participants who reported prioritizing other people's needs over their own tended to experience more anxiety symptoms. Moreover, the study found a statistically significant negative association between being a people pleaser and job performance (t(1298) = -3.79, p < .001). Participants who reported prioritizing other people's needs over their own tended to report lower levels of job performance, suggesting that being a people pleaser may lead to reduced productivity and neglect of one's own work responsibilities. Further analysis showed that anxiety partially mediated the relationship between being a people pleaser and job performance (t(1298) = -2.97, p < .08), suggesting that anxiety plays a role in explaining why being a people pleaser is negatively associated with job performance.

Questions:

1- Identify the research design and explain your choice. Also, explain the main hypothesis the authors are making and the type of variables used.

2- Why is it important to conduct a literature review when researching a particular topic and research previous studies?

3- Were the measures used for people pleasing and job performance good measures? Why or why not?

4- Evaluate the external validity of the findings. Make sure to enlist at least one strength and one weakness.

5- Explain the sampling method used in this research. Is it better to randomly select your sample respondents? Why or why not?

6- What is the difference between inter-rater and internal consistency reliability? Suppose the reliability here is 0.68. Comment on the reliability we have collected here and how we can reduce errors in measurement

7- Suppose you were hypothesizing a relationship between negative emotions and job performance during the research study. What theoretical explanation would you provide? What statistical test would you use and would it be one-tailed or two-tailed?

Article 3: Impacts on Job Performance in Four Business Industries

The business world is a dynamic and competitive environment, and companies are always looking for ways to improve their bottom line. One factor that has been shown to impact job performance is the work environment. However, there are many other variables that can also play a role, such as attractiveness, gender, age, annual salary, benefits, and even weather. To better understand the relationship between these variables and job performance in the finance, sales, marketing, and data science industries, a study was conducted in Ottawa, Canada, and Dallas, Texas.

The study included a sample of 600 participants, with 300 in each city. Participants were recruited through online platforms, social media and during in-person events, and were required to be currently employed in one of the four business industries. The survey was conducted over three weeks and included questions on attractiveness, gender, age, annual salary, benefits, work environment, weather, and job performance.

Attractiveness was measured using a scale that assessed the perceived physical attractiveness of the participant. Gender was measured by self-report, with participants identifying as either male or female. Age was also self-reported. Annual salary was reported by the participants, and benefits were measured by a series of questions asking about the types of benefits provided by their employer. Work environment was measured using a scale that assessed the degree of workplace autonomy, flexibility, social support, and physical comfort. Weather was measured by self-report, with participants indicating the current weather conditions at the time of the survey. Finally, job performance was measured using a self-reported scale that assessed the quality and quantity of work completed by participants.

The results of the study showed that attractiveness was positively associated with job performance in all four business industries. Gender and age did not have a significant impact on job performance. Annual salary was positively associated with job performance in all industries except for finance. Benefits were positively associated with job performance in all industries except for data science. Interestingly, work environment had a significant impact on job performance, with participants reporting higher levels of job performance in environments that were more autonomous, flexible, socially supportive, and physically comfortable. Also, one's attractiveness was found to have a major impact on their salary, thereby impacting their job performance. Those who made more and were ranked as more attractive, were perceived to have performed their jobs much better. Finally, weather had a significant impact on job performance, with participants reporting higher levels of job performance on sunny days compared to cloudy or rainy days.

In conclusion, the results of this study suggest that attractiveness, annual salary, benefits, work environment, and weather all play a role in job performance in the finance, sales, marketing, and data science industries. Employers may benefit from recognizing the impact of these variables and implementing interventions that promote employee well-being, such as improving the work environment, offering competitive salaries and benefits packages, and providing opportunities for professional development. By addressing these factors, organizations may be able to improve job performance, leading to a more productive and successful business environment.

Questions: 1- Outline what the variables in this research are and what types they are.

2- What type of research design was used here?

3- Evaluate the external and internal validity of this case. Apply them to this case as well.

4- What type of statistical test would you conduct to test the relationship between attractiveness and job performance, and to test the differences in job performance across different industries? Explain why.

5- What type of sampling method consists of you asking the friends and family members of the participants to fill out your questionnaire and spread it to theirs in turn called?

Cohort

Record linkage

Chain

Panel

Snowball

6- What is the type of selection where you ask the respondents' friends and family to fill out your questionnaires? What are the differences between that type of selection and a convenience sampling method? Which is better?