Caterpillar, Inc., is one of the worlds largest manufacturers of construction, mining, and forestry machinery. The following disclosure note is included in the companys 2015 financial statements:

Real World Financials

D. Inventories ($ in millions)

Inventories are stated at the lower of cost or market. Cost is principally determined using the last-in, first-out (LIFO) method. If the FIFO (first-in, first-out) method had been in use, inventories would have been $2,498 million and $2,430 million higher than reported at December 31, 2015 and 2014, respectively.

Required: 1. The company reported LIFO cost of goods sold of $33,742 million. Calculate the amount that would be reported for cost of goods sold had Caterpillar used the FIFO inventory method for all of its inventory.

2. Using the cost of goods sold calculated in requirement 1, how much higher (lower) would income before taxes be, if Caterpillar had used the FIFO inventory method for all of its inventory?