Caterpillar, Inc., is one of the worlds largest manufacturers of construction, mining, and forestry machinery. The following disclosure note is included in the companys 2017 financial statements:

D. Inventories ($ in millions)
Inventories are stated at the lower of cost or net realizable value. Cost is principally determined using the last-in, first-out (LIFO) method. The value of inventories on the LIFO basis represented about 65 percent and 60 percent of total inventories at December 31, 2017 and 2016. If the FIFO (first-in, first-out) method had been in use, inventories would have been $1,934 million and $2,139 million higher than reported at December 31, 2017 and 2016, respectively.

Required:
1. The company reported LIFO cost of goods sold of $31,049 million. Calculate the amount that would be reported for cost of goods sold had Caterpillar used the FIFO inventory method for all of its inventory during 2017.
2. Using the cost of goods sold calculated in requirement 1, how much higher (lower) would income before taxes be, if Caterpillar had used the FIFO inventory method for all of its inventory?